Lightbulb moments

We reach number 21 in this series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I featured Gestalt theory - and the work of Kurt Koffka. In this post, we will explore another Gestalt theorist, Wolfang Köhler and his studies into insight and intuition. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.

The theory

During the First World War German psychologist Wolfang Köhler spent time researching the behaviour of chimpanzees in the Canary Islands, and made some interesting claims about learning. He observed how apes, when presented with problems, would solve them through means which they could not have learnt previously. For example, their ability to use sticks to reach bananas that were beyond their normal reach, or the use of boxes to reach bananas that were out of reach in the roof of their cages led Köhler to conclude that some kind of insightful thinking was present. Köhler also noticed that there was a period of time between being presented with the problem to finding the solution. This thinking time led to a lightbulb moment when the ape suddenly realised the solution to the problem. British psychologist Graham Wallas called this thinking time the incubation phase - time needed before arrival at a creative solution, which is the illumination phase of thinking. Interestingly, the incubation period is not always identified with conscious thinking but is more often unconscious processing of the problem.

How it can be applied in education

Teachers should try to ensure that students are given enough thinking time. Time should be allocated in lessons so they can process problems before they arrive at their own solutions, instead of just being given the answers. Sadly, a large amount of schooling has been directive and didactic. This needs to change. It is what Ivan Illich once called these educational funnels, where there is little room for them to manoeuvre and little time to reflect. Giving students time to figure things out for themselves without being instructed, is very powerful learning. They will remember it for the rest of their lives. This is exemplified in some of the best flipped learning practices, but unfortunately these are rare. Students need that kind of lightbulb learning - thaqt Eureka! moment when they suddenly realise something new for the first time. Often teaching schedules don't have enough time programmed in for students to explore, incubate and then illuminate their learning.

Previous posts in this series:

1.  Anderson ACT-R Cognitive Architecture
2.  Argyris Double Loop Learning
3.  Bandura Social Learning Theory
4.  Bruner Scaffolding Theory
5.  Craik and Lockhart Levels of Processing
6.  Csíkszentmihályi Flow Theory
7.  Dewey Experiential Learning
8.  Engeström Activity Theory
9.  Ebbinghaus Learning and Forgetting Curves
10. Festinger Social Comparison Theory
11. Festinger Cognitive Dissonance Theory
12. Gardner Multiple Intelligences Theory
13. Gibson Affordances Theory
14. Gregory Visual Perception Hypothesis
15. Hase and Kenyon Heutagogy
16. Hull Drive Reduction Theory
17. Inhelder and Piaget Formal Operations Stage
18. Jung Archetypes and Synchronicity
19. Jahoda Ideal Mental Health
20. Koffka Gestalt theory

Photo by Alan Cleaver



Lightbulb moments by Steve Wheeler is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

Joining the dots

This is number 20 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I featured the work of Marie Jahoda on ideal mental health. In this post, we will explore the Gestalt theory of Kurt Koffka. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.

The theory

German born psychologist Kurt Koffka is credited with his colleagues Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler for introducing a theory known as Gestalt psychology. Gestalt is German for pattern or shape, and provides a useful explanation for visual perception. The key principle of Gestalt is that the mind organises a 'global whole' of what the eyes see. Gestaltists believe that the human brain is capable of perceiving whole forms even though only partial component parts may have been seen. The phrase 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts' is particularly apt in terms of Gestalt principles, although Koffka's original phrase was 'the whole is other than the sum of the parts'. The Gestalt laws of perception are innate, according to Koffka, and introduce an organisation component into the old behaviourist stimulus response links so that S-R becomes S-O-R. There are many examples to illustrate the several laws of Gestalt perception. The law of continuity for example, can be seen when people view rows of spots, and connect them into a line in their minds. Central to this process is the law of Prägnanz which suggests that each of us is seeking order from chaos and meaning from ambiguity.

How it can be applied in education

Teachers can capitalise on some of the key principles of Gestalt to enhance and enrich the learning experience. Students will have an innate need to make sense of what they see or hear, so teachers could provide them with puzzles, challenges and problems to solve that require them to 'close' or make sense of. Joining the dots or filling in the gaps are strategies teachers can use to test understanding, but they can be more powerful methods when used to encourage students to study deeper.

One example would be ill-structured problems, which have several possible solutions. Ill structured problems are deliberately poorly defined. The solution the student chooses to solve the problem must be justified, which requires them to consider other possible solutions before making their decision. Ill-structured problems have been used in a number of educational contexts to promote deeper thinking, critical analysis and the development of more divergent problem solving skills.

Further reading 

Carlson, N. R. and Heth, C. D. (2010) Psychology: the Science of Behaviour. Ontario, CA: Pearson Education Canada.
Koffka, K. (2013 - first published in 1935) Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Abingdon: Routledge.

Previous posts in this series:

1.  Anderson ACT-R Cognitive Architecture
2.  Argyris Double Loop Learning
3.  Bandura Social Learning Theory
4.  Bruner Scaffolding Theory
5.  Craik and Lockhart Levels of Processing
6.  Csíkszentmihályi Flow Theory
7.  Dewey Experiential Learning
8.  Engeström Activity Theory
9.  Ebbinghaus Learning and Forgetting Curves
10. Festinger Social Comparison Theory
11. Festinger Cognitive Dissonance Theory
12. Gardner Multiple Intelligences Theory
13. Gibson Affordances Theory
14. Gregory Visual Perception Hypothesis
15. Hase and Kenyon Heutagogy
16. Hull Drive Reduction Theory
17. Inhelder and Piaget Formal Operations Stage
18. Jung Archetypes and Synchronicity
19. Jahoda Ideal Mental Health

Photo by Clemens Koppensteiner



Joining the dots by Steve Wheeler is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

Behave yourself

This is number 19 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I featured the work of Carl Jung and his theories of synchronicity and archetypes. In this post, we will explore the work of Marie Jahoda on ideal mental health. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.

The theory

What is normal? We all have opinions on this, and these are usually based upon our own unique and subjective experiences. When students behave badly during lessons, everyone is affected. Behavioural management can take up more time in some lessons than teaching. Normal behaviour (read 'acceptable') is therefore something all educators have a vested interest in, and the causes of bad behaviour have become the focus of a great deal of educational research. Some of the answers come from psychological research. Psychologists such as Marie Jahoda were interested in researching the characteristics of 'normal' human behaviour. Jahoda specifically focused on what became known as ideal mental health. She proposed 6 characteristics of normal behaviour:

• Efficient self perception
• Realistic self esteem and acceptance
• True perception of the world
• Self direction and productivity
• Voluntary control of behaviour
• Sustaining relationships and giving affection

How it can be applied in education

The above listed characteristics seem intuitive, but teachers need to be aware of them and their effects on learning. Children need to feel that they belong and are accepted. Teachers should be vigilant to the possibilities that some children may feel as though they are on the periphery of the group and that they don't feel welcome. This may be because of other children's behaviour, but it may also be because the child has a negative self perception or a lack self esteem. Much can be done to improve this, including teachers encouraging children to integrate into the group, meet incremental challenges, succeed and gradually build on their own self-worth. Children naturally and actively seek out friendship, and are happier when engaged in a circle of relationships with other of their own age group. Teachers should be aware of this, and the negative as well as positive aspects of relationships, and their effects on self-esteem. Often simple solutions such as the configuration of tables and chairs in the classroom can optimise good behaviour, promote useful collaborative learning relationships and largely eliminate the marginalisation of individuals.  

Self direction can also be encouraged through the inclusion of student centred approaches to education where children take more responsibility for their own learning. There are more tools and technologies available to teachers than there have ever been, which if used appropriately can promote children's productivity. Learning through making and building is becoming an important component of active learning, and children naturally want to create their own content, whether it is drawings, models and paintings, or blogs and videos.

Previous posts in this series:

1.  Anderson ACT-R Cognitive Architecture
2.  Argyris Double Loop Learning
3.  Bandura Social Learning Theory
4.  Bruner Scaffolding Theory
5.  Craik and Lockhart Levels of Processing
6.  Csíkszentmihályi Flow Theory
7.  Dewey Experiential Learning
8.  Engeström Activity Theory
9.  Ebbinghaus Learning and Forgetting Curves
10. Festinger Social Comparison Theory
11. Festinger Cognitive Dissonance Theory
12. Gardner Multiple Intelligences Theory
13. Gibson Affordances Theory
14. Gregory Visual Perception Hypothesis
15. Hase and Kenyon Heutagogy
16. Hull Drive Reduction Theory
17. Inhelder and Piaget Formal Operations Stage
18. Jung Archetypes and Synchronicity

Photo from Wikimedia Commons



Behave yourself by Steve Wheeler is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.