tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-28471183873741396832024-02-19T05:53:58.729-08:00Business GamesAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.comBlogger90125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-74187357589395827852014-07-15T02:31:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.200-07:00Mind the gap<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvkxa9SxbrHyGDP9nPLoI2txtfkoifgCVtmKYCUH4vHZhs-D7GKSvRLYP4_efaVD_PbFi5KNaGl9gOoemLXmNBdaaaeiBML_YdoHQiUR9xWhnBhifQvWDVGGuuA3lqG-lwtpkjJCqfxKY/s1600/Mind-The-Gap-Bank.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvkxa9SxbrHyGDP9nPLoI2txtfkoifgCVtmKYCUH4vHZhs-D7GKSvRLYP4_efaVD_PbFi5KNaGl9gOoemLXmNBdaaaeiBML_YdoHQiUR9xWhnBhifQvWDVGGuuA3lqG-lwtpkjJCqfxKY/s1600/Mind-The-Gap-Bank.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></div>I was invited to do a Google Hangout video interview ahead of the Reform Symposium online event last week. I was interviewed by Shelly Terrell about my work, my teaching philosophy, and yes... the new book I'm currently writing.<br /><br />Minding the gap was one of my key messages in the interview. The sign stencilled onto the platforms in London's underground stations warns of the gap between the edge and the train. My view is that there is also a gap - a perceptual gulf - between what teachers intend and what students expect. It's a form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_distance">transactional distance</a>. It takes a number of forms, including language use, acceptable behaviour, approaches to learning, power structures and the inevitable age differential, but the most visible gap is around the perception of how technology can be used in the classroom. Many teachers and students simply don't agree.<br /><br />I expressed my view in the interview that teachers firstly need to know and acknowledge that this gap exists. Secondly, they need to be aware of the dangers of the gap. And thirdly, they need to be willing to step across the gap, and cross over into a territory to reach out to learners. This is the terrain where students are allowed to use their own devices, and where technology becomes mundane, embedded and virtually invisible in education. Teachers can no longer afford to see technology as 'special' - students certainly don't. Once the spotlight is off the technology, and on to pedagogy, we will realise that learning can be supported in any number of ways. This is not capitulation, it's common sense. So teachers, please mind the gap between your own intentions and your students' expectations, and be prepared to cross over.<br /><br />Here's the <a href="http://www.futureofeducation.com/video/rscon5stevewheeler">link to the video</a>.<br /><br />Photo by Juergen Rosskamp on <a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Mind-The-Gap-Bank.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Mind the gap by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-71272574003087384142014-07-11T14:44:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.276-07:00From novice to expert<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKsyD-CRvdmGinJ2hjVf8cROTaeseLT84zKxX5AKKPH5KJ9Wsi2zEgVs0wLnnnDutV-M2RBln57omzkFGvc6gc7A1ktznTqvJTa3CM1EuLuBcxQ8TBsv8qU9yFmtTqYICaKki6i4lGIKE/s1600/Community.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKsyD-CRvdmGinJ2hjVf8cROTaeseLT84zKxX5AKKPH5KJ9Wsi2zEgVs0wLnnnDutV-M2RBln57omzkFGvc6gc7A1ktznTqvJTa3CM1EuLuBcxQ8TBsv8qU9yFmtTqYICaKki6i4lGIKE/s1600/Community.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 24 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. The last post highlighted issues around the andragogy theory of <a href="http://infed.org/mobi/malcolm-knowles-informal-adult-education-self-direction-and-andragogy/">Malcolm Knowles</a>. In this post, we review the situated learning theory of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Lave">Jean Lave</a>. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />Jean Lave's <a href="http://www.learning-theories.com/situated-learning-theory-lave.html">situated learning theory</a> can be located within the social constructivist school of thought. Lave's argument is that most traditional classroom learning is based on abstract knowledge that can be difficult to apply within meaningful contexts. This is ineffective, she suggests, and offers an alternative where the abstract is removed and learning is grounded in an authentic context or 'situated'. She sees this as authentic learning because it occurs within environments or contexts where the learning can realistically applied.<br /><br />Lave sees the social context of this kind of situated learning as vitally important, because novice learners can be closely supported by experts, and their behaviour and knowledge can be <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">scaffolded</a> by more experienced members of their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_community">learning community</a>. As novices become more knowledgeable and begin to apply their knowledge in authentic situations, so they become more confident of their membership and place in the learning community, and they begin to move from the periphery to the core of the group.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />This theory relies heavily on social contexts, and shows that learning rarely occurs within a social vacuum. The notion of legitimate peripheral participation could be easily applied to online learning. Where some might see lurking (being present but not directly contributing to discussions or online activities) as a form of social loafing or lack of engagement in the learning community, Lave argues that it is legitimate and can lead to fuller participation once knowledge and confidence has been gained. The role of stronger, or more knowledgeable learners within a learning community (e.g. a student cohort) can be extended by encouraging them to scaffold weaker, or less expert learners, to encourage and lead, in a kind of cognitive apprenticeship.<br /><br />Subsequent work on the theory has revealed that <a href="http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Cognitive_tool">cognitive tools</a> (learning with, rather than through technology) can be applied to amplify the 'situatedness' of learning, by providing active, engaging contexts. ICTs should also be embedded authentically within and across the curriculum, rather than be used as an isolated, 'special' set of tools.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1990) <i>Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />1. Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />2. Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />3. Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />4. Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />5. Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />6. Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />7. Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />8. Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />9. Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />10. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />11. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />12. Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />13. Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />14. Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />15. Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />16. Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br />17. Inhelder and Piaget <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">Formal Operations Stage</a><br />18. Jung <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/heroes-and-villains.html">Archetypes and Synchronicity</a><br />19. Jahoda <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/behave-yourself.html">Ideal Mental Health</a><br />20. Koffka <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/joining-dots.html">Gestalt theory</a><br />21. Köhler <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/lightbulb-moments.html">Insight learning</a><br />22. Kolb <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/try-it-and-see.html">Experiential Learning Cycle</a><br />23. Knowles <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/strictly-for-adults.html">Andragogy</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-7215052318">Thomas Hawk</a> on Fotopedia<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />From novice to expert by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-58051025618604187282014-07-02T08:27:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.288-07:00Strictly for adults?<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNgICRziUIhkhQBrpo4TchXjoElqqhxTQUZeeXKqTChTidVs3H8gr_eLUOHLmSRzTBnR1jCRyLnuVOAEQAMxz-gPP_UqEY8krZIxBV_Woa3kZZFL8kwvrEcpPfVtGAyGy8rcAUOp-U3oo/s1600/adult+learning.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNgICRziUIhkhQBrpo4TchXjoElqqhxTQUZeeXKqTChTidVs3H8gr_eLUOHLmSRzTBnR1jCRyLnuVOAEQAMxz-gPP_UqEY8krZIxBV_Woa3kZZFL8kwvrEcpPfVtGAyGy8rcAUOp-U3oo/s1600/adult+learning.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 23 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. The last post featured <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Kolb">David Kolb</a> and his cyclical model of experiential learning. In this post, we review the andragogy theory of <a href="http://infed.org/mobi/malcolm-knowles-informal-adult-education-self-direction-and-andragogy/">Malcolm Knowles</a>. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogy">Andragogy</a> is a well known theory of learning for those working in further and higher education, because it focuses on the supposed differences between adults' and children's learning. When Malcolm Knowles first proposed his model, he argued that the greater experience of adults makes a difference, and that problem centred learning dominates adult learning, when compared to the content centred learning of school age children. Other distinctions are also offered between adult and child learning, including the need for relevance due to adults being employed, and involvement of adult learners in the planning of their own education. Essentially, adult learning is different to children's learning, because it is largely self directed and self-regulated. Adults have skills children are still developing, so the approach should be different, says Knowles.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />A few years ago I wrote a critique of the theory of andragogy which can be read <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/learning-is-learning.html">at this link</a>. The essence of my argument was that there are fewer differences between adult and child learning than we have been led to believe. Although Knowles tries valiantly to delineate some important distinctions between the strategies and approaches of children and adults, the distinctions he makes are either meaningless or poorly defined.<br /><br />Clearly, andragogy is a theory that is best located in the adult education sector. It can enable teachers in this sector to plan and implement programmes of study that lock into the needs and cultures of adults. However, some of the principles of andragogy arguably have just as much relevance in the compulsory education sector. Children can be, and often are, involved in the planning of their own learning. In fact, involving children in planning programmes of study will probably help them to learn more than if they were passive recipients of content. One thing we might concede is that many children are not able to direct their own learning, and need some firm scaffolding to enable them to focus. However, many are also able to regulate their own learning, especially if they are inspired and motivated by the subject. Furthermore, many adult learners I have encountered are less able to direct their own learning than Knowles would have us believe.<br /><br />It is a nonsense to suggest that andragogy is exclusively concerned with relevance of learning because of the needs of adults to focus on their work and careers. Clearly, children also need relevance in their learning, because, although they don't necessarily have jobs, learning that is not relevant is simply a waste of time. And how can you measure relevance? Is learning for adults only relevant if it relates directly to their employment. Of course not. My argument is that learning is learning - and that we should not distinguish between adult and child in this respect. Many of the pedagogical models and theories I have featured in this series (see list of links below) are equally relevant to adults' and children's learning.<br /><br />Take one of the key tenets of andragogy - problem based learning. If teachers conduct children's education by providing them with learning experiences that are problem based, oriented toward challenge and in which they are actively involved, they will inspire their students to become lifelong learners. If we ignore this, we are missing a huge opportunity.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><b><br /></b>Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., and Swanson, R. A. (2005) <i>The Adult Learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (6th ed.), </i>Burlington, MA: Elsevier<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />1. Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />2. Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />3. Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />4. Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />5. Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />6. Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />7. Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />8. Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />9. Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />10. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />11. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />12. Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />13. Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />14. Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />15. Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />16. Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br />17. Inhelder and Piaget <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">Formal Operations Stage</a><br />18. Jung <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/heroes-and-villains.html">Archetypes and Synchronicity</a><br />19. Jahoda <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/behave-yourself.html">Ideal Mental Health</a><br />20. Koffka <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/joining-dots.html">Gestalt theory</a><br />21. Köhler <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/lightbulb-moments.html">Insight learning</a><br />22. Kolb <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/try-it-and-see.html">Experiential Learning Cycle</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwood_(charity)#mediaviewer/File:Norwood_adult_services.jpg">Norwood Adult Services</a> on Wikimedia Commons<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Strictly for adults? by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-88120604665236569392014-07-01T05:06:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.368-07:00Try it and see<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnCtB00iQP6q1Wlz2ohwq3Rp5G93R801qhE9fwYDVkNqbFYJpbPVY8LIS8jC9Ox-Yrd6bvfxReu0Dd0AjBd0jmytLoTRBj7XDztJ6kzLG_Pghtzl0gCweNhW5i5PA45KLqgs3tMbo3nHw/s1600/Soapbubbles-SteveEF.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnCtB00iQP6q1Wlz2ohwq3Rp5G93R801qhE9fwYDVkNqbFYJpbPVY8LIS8jC9Ox-Yrd6bvfxReu0Dd0AjBd0jmytLoTRBj7XDztJ6kzLG_Pghtzl0gCweNhW5i5PA45KLqgs3tMbo3nHw/s1600/Soapbubbles-SteveEF.jpg" height="340" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 22 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I wrote about Gestalt theorist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler">Wolfang Köhler</a> and his studies into insight and intuition. In this post, we will explore the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Kolb">David Kolb</a> on experiential learning. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />American psychologist David Kolb is best known for his work on learning styles and in particular for his cyclical model of learning. The various learning styles theories have been <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/convenient-untruth.html">heavily criticised</a> in recent years as we have discovered more about how we learn - so Kolb's contribution in that area does not feature in this post.<br /><br />What <i>will </i>be discussed is Kolb's best work around the concept of <a href="http://infed.org/mobi/david-a-kolb-on-experiential-learning/">experiential learning</a>, where he identified the components of learning through sensory experiences. Kolb's model is typically depicted as a cyclic process involving four stages of thinking. These are:<br /><br />1. Concrete experience: This can be either a completely new experience or an experience that has been previously encountered.<br />2. Reflective observation: Thinking back on the experience and determining whether there is any discrepancy between the experience and one's knowledge/understanding.<br />3. Abstract Conceptualisation: Reflecting on the experience may give rise to new ways of thinking, or changing of existing though patterns.<br />4. Active experimentation: Application of new things/skills/knowledge one has learnt through the experience.<br /><br />A key problem of this model is that it is sequential, the cycle flows in only one direction and is therefore prescriptive. What should be noted is the criticism that has centred on the nature of this flow. Can a learner for example have an experience and then reflect on it before going back and repeating the experience having avoided any conceptualisation or experimentation for example? What is to stop an individual from experimenting and then conceptualising before reflecting (a reverse of the cyclical process). A side issue (one alluded to earlier on in this post) is that many now believe Kolb made an error in deriving four distinct learning styles from these thinking activities. Whether of not such 'learning styles' actually exist is one question, but assigning students to one or two predominant styles of thinking on the basis of a tick box test is a serious error, particularly when we are equally capable of all four.<br /><br /><b>How it could be applied in education</b><br /><br />Teachers should be aware of the power of experiential learning. Doing is far more powerful than simply listening or watching. The ability to reflect on an experience loses its power if no direct experience has occurred. Students should be given the chance to 'get their hands dirty' through direct involvement with their subjects, including time to think, reflect, experiment and observe the results of their ideas in action. Teachers should avoid rigid structures which constrain thinking and limit experimentation. There should be no set sequence of discovery, and learners should be free to ask not only 'how and why?', but also the 'what if?' and 'why not?' questions. They should also be free to go off and answer these questions themselves through active experimentation. What learners can do with their new knowledge is potentially limitless - how can they apply their learning in new contexts or unusual situations? Ultimately, self-driven learning which encompasses all of the components identified by Kolb, seems to be the most effective for deeper, more reflective learning.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Kolb D. A. (1984) <i>Experiential Learning experience as a source of learning and development.</i> New Jersey: Prentice Hall.<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />1. Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />2. Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />3. Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />4. Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />5. Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />6. Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />7. Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />8. Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />9. Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />10. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />11. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />12. Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />13. Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />14. Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />15. Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />16. Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br />17. Inhelder and Piaget <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">Formal Operations Stage</a><br />18. Jung <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/heroes-and-villains.html">Archetypes and Synchronicity</a><br />19. Jahoda <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/behave-yourself.html">Ideal Mental Health</a><br />20. Koffka <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/joining-dots.html">Gestalt theory</a><br />21. Köhler <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/lightbulb-moments.html">Insight learning</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_development#mediaviewer/File:Soapbubbles-SteveEF.jpg">Steve Ford Elliott</a> on Wikimedia Commons<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Try it and see by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-84315135132507114112014-06-28T04:46:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.382-07:00Lightbulb moments<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaEavCuxe7zsSr9-hPKPcIrJ5hu4CJyAC9QCPFPKRJI90ng5F1Id5xD-cb2iUiPr1YLiePkf0PN7l7JHrprUlGCCzoZ2nuy-bbe_aT0Gk51lFZZGnb1R8oJ2pc-Lrc6im0ecLYEOL-4Bk/s1600/lightbulb.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaEavCuxe7zsSr9-hPKPcIrJ5hu4CJyAC9QCPFPKRJI90ng5F1Id5xD-cb2iUiPr1YLiePkf0PN7l7JHrprUlGCCzoZ2nuy-bbe_aT0Gk51lFZZGnb1R8oJ2pc-Lrc6im0ecLYEOL-4Bk/s1600/lightbulb.jpg" height="267" width="400" /></a></div>We reach number 21 in this series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I featured Gestalt theory - and the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Koffka">Kurt Koffka</a>. In this post, we will explore another Gestalt theorist, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler">Wolfang Köhler</a> and his studies into insight and intuition. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />During the First World War German psychologist Wolfang Köhler spent time researching the behaviour of chimpanzees in the Canary Islands, and made some interesting claims about learning. He observed how apes, when presented with problems, would solve them through means which they could not have learnt previously. For example, their ability to use sticks to reach bananas that were beyond their normal reach, or the use of boxes to reach bananas that were out of reach in the roof of their cages led Köhler to conclude that some kind of insightful thinking was present. Köhler also noticed that there was a period of time between being presented with the problem to finding the solution. This thinking time led to a lightbulb moment when the ape suddenly realised the solution to the problem. British psychologist <a href="http://www.brainpickings.org/index.php/2013/08/28/the-art-of-thought-graham-wallas-stages/">Graham Wallas</a> called this thinking time the incubation phase - time needed before arrival at a creative solution, which is the illumination phase of thinking. Interestingly, the incubation period is not always identified with conscious thinking but is more often unconscious processing of the problem.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />Teachers should try to ensure that students are given enough thinking time. Time should be allocated in lessons so they can process problems before they arrive at their own solutions, instead of just being given the answers. Sadly, a large amount of schooling has been directive and didactic. This needs to change. It is what Ivan Illich once called these <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deschooling_Society">educational funnels</a>, where there is little room for them to manoeuvre and little time to reflect. Giving students time to figure things out for themselves without being instructed, is very powerful learning. They will remember it for the rest of their lives. This is exemplified in some of the best <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2012/03/what-flip.html">flipped learning</a> practices, but unfortunately these are rare. Students need that kind of lightbulb learning - thaqt <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka">Eureka!</a> moment when they suddenly realise something new for the first time. Often teaching schedules don't have enough time programmed in for students to explore, incubate and then illuminate their learning.<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />1. Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />2. Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />3. Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />4. Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />5. Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />6. Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />7. Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />8. Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />9. Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />10. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />11. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />12. Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />13. Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />14. Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />15. Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />16. Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br />17. Inhelder and Piaget <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">Formal Operations Stage</a><br />18. Jung <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/heroes-and-villains.html">Archetypes and Synchronicity</a><br />19. Jahoda <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/behave-yourself.html">Ideal Mental Health</a><br />20. Koffka <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/joining-dots.html">Gestalt theory</a><br /><br />Photo by <u><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/alancleaver/2279694390/">Alan Cleaver</a></u><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Lightbulb moments by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-66942391944073711402014-06-26T11:27:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.461-07:00Joining the dots<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijGpI5Il6s2sChpcMuUpOhBNmENWAabfz-AMYMDpAy_zbgGlaNxzBW3MN2BmMoSQwUzNKEiHP-G65cZu0YlRjZVeNgJNgG7LVfNhXGdyDmfl_kuooR62LhbuzLB9jc-50Xh9-0jQHP39M/s1600/rubic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijGpI5Il6s2sChpcMuUpOhBNmENWAabfz-AMYMDpAy_zbgGlaNxzBW3MN2BmMoSQwUzNKEiHP-G65cZu0YlRjZVeNgJNgG7LVfNhXGdyDmfl_kuooR62LhbuzLB9jc-50Xh9-0jQHP39M/s1600/rubic.jpg" height="400" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 20 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I featured the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Jahoda">Marie Jahoda</a> on ideal mental health. In this post, we will explore the Gestalt theory of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Koffka">Kurt Koffka</a>. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />German born psychologist Kurt Koffka is credited with his colleagues Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler for introducing a theory known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology">Gestalt psychology</a>. Gestalt is German for pattern or shape, and provides a useful explanation for visual perception. The key principle of Gestalt is that the mind organises a '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism">global whole</a>' of what the eyes see. Gestaltists believe that the human brain is capable of perceiving whole forms even though only partial component parts may have been seen. The phrase 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts' is particularly apt in terms of Gestalt principles, although Koffka's original phrase was 'the whole is other than the sum of the parts'. The Gestalt <a href="http://www.users.totalise.co.uk/~kbroom/Lectures/gestalt.htm">laws of perception</a> are innate, according to Koffka, and introduce an organisation component into the old behaviourist stimulus response links so that S-R becomes S-O-R. There are many examples to illustrate the several laws of Gestalt perception. The law of continuity for example, can be seen when people view rows of spots, and connect them into a line in their minds. Central to this process is the law of <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ss/gestaltlaws_3.htm">Prägnanz</a> which suggests that each of us is seeking order from chaos and meaning from ambiguity.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />Teachers can capitalise on some of the key principles of Gestalt to enhance and enrich the learning experience. Students will have an innate need to make sense of what they see or hear, so teachers could provide them with puzzles, challenges and problems to solve that require them to 'close' or make sense of. Joining the dots or filling in the gaps are strategies teachers can use to test understanding, but they can be more powerful methods when used to encourage students to study deeper.<br /><br />One example would be ill-structured problems, which have several possible solutions. Ill structured problems are deliberately poorly defined. The solution the student chooses to solve the problem must be justified, which requires them to consider other possible solutions before making their decision. Ill-structured problems have been used in a number of educational contexts to promote deeper thinking, critical analysis and the development of more divergent problem solving skills.<br /><br /><b>Further reading </b><br /><br />Carlson, N. R. and Heth, C. D. (2010) <i>Psychology: the Science of Behaviour.</i> Ontario, CA: Pearson Education Canada.<br />Koffka, K. (2013 - first published in 1935) <i>Principles of Gestalt Psychology.</i> Abingdon: Routledge.<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />1. Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />2. Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />3. Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />4. Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />5. Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />6. Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />7. Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />8. Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />9. Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />10. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />11. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />12. Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />13. Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />14. Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />15. Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />16. Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br />17. Inhelder and Piaget <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">Formal Operations Stage</a><br />18. Jung <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/heroes-and-villains.html">Archetypes and Synchronicity</a><br />19. Jahoda <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/behave-yourself.html">Ideal Mental Health</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/caramdir/21722935/">Clemens Koppensteiner</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Joining the dots by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-63117004906792697342014-06-24T04:45:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.476-07:00Behave yourself<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyfiN1nx0XZvoFFraS_P8wqkXppx-DU-_LYYQYh5Vvnb6CysPbgZnhVW_bPby0ChZVZTgcTXuGgzQJYiK71ZM1ULR_cEGTfhXC6V5GGgCg4vUsLaSogoLYC-P33yMHRIx_cWsu-L0EwuY/s1600/school+kids.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyfiN1nx0XZvoFFraS_P8wqkXppx-DU-_LYYQYh5Vvnb6CysPbgZnhVW_bPby0ChZVZTgcTXuGgzQJYiK71ZM1ULR_cEGTfhXC6V5GGgCg4vUsLaSogoLYC-P33yMHRIx_cWsu-L0EwuY/s1600/school+kids.jpg" height="400" width="383" /></a></div>This is number 19 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I featured the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung">Carl Jung</a> and his theories of <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/heroes-and-villains.html">synchronicity and archetypes</a>. In this post, we will explore the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Jahoda">Marie Jahoda</a> on ideal mental health. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><b><br /></b>What is normal? We all have opinions on this, and these are usually based upon our own unique and subjective experiences. When students behave badly during lessons, everyone is affected. Behavioural management can take up more time in some lessons than teaching. Normal behaviour (read 'acceptable') is therefore something all educators have a vested interest in, and the causes of bad behaviour have become the focus of a great deal of educational research. Some of the answers come from psychological research. Psychologists such as Marie Jahoda were interested in researching the characteristics of 'normal' human behaviour. Jahoda specifically focused on what became known as ideal mental health. She proposed 6 characteristics of normal behaviour:<br /><br /><ul><li>Efficient self perception</li><li>Realistic self esteem and acceptance</li><li>True perception of the world</li><li>Self direction and productivity</li><li>Voluntary control of behaviour</li><li>Sustaining relationships and giving affection</li></ul><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />The above listed characteristics seem intuitive, but teachers need to be aware of them and their effects on learning. Children need to feel that they belong and are accepted. Teachers should be vigilant to the possibilities that some children may feel as though they are on the periphery of the group and that they don't feel welcome. This may be because of other children's behaviour, but it may also be because the child has a negative self perception or a lack self esteem. Much can be done to improve this, including teachers encouraging children to integrate into the group, meet incremental challenges, succeed and gradually build on their own self-worth. Children naturally and actively seek out friendship, and are happier when engaged in a circle of relationships with other of their own age group. Teachers should be aware of this, and the negative as well as positive aspects of relationships, and their effects on self-esteem. Often simple solutions such as the configuration of tables and chairs in the classroom can optimise good behaviour, promote useful collaborative learning relationships and largely eliminate the marginalisation of individuals. <br /><br />Self direction can also be encouraged through the inclusion of student centred approaches to education where children take more responsibility for their own learning. There are more tools and technologies available to teachers than there have ever been, which if used appropriately can promote children's productivity. Learning through making and building is becoming an important component of active learning, and children naturally want to create their own content, whether it is drawings, models and paintings, or blogs and videos.<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />1. Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />2. Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />3. Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />4. Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />5. Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />6. Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />7. Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />8. Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />9. Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />10. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />11. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />12. Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />13. Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />14. Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />15. Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />16. Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br />17. Inhelder and Piaget <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">Formal Operations Stage</a><br />18. Jung <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/heroes-and-villains.html">Archetypes and Synchronicity</a><br /><br />Photo from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_group#mediaviewer/File:Children_marbles.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Behave yourself by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-65082995830134204962014-06-23T00:16:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.556-07:00Heroes and villains<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEBeMoxxtlOaUqTGoASkEOrYfMBBTK3MaYFUyaWFaBuxdTFVRbbXFwUzwibnTVfY5WU78mxI0_2nceHcYpzc_LdALQHy3CAtJ2m3W99qsH8xgDUo8NpwPqT2PPbJTHZwQHSvQeq_bm1xE/s1600/heroes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEBeMoxxtlOaUqTGoASkEOrYfMBBTK3MaYFUyaWFaBuxdTFVRbbXFwUzwibnTVfY5WU78mxI0_2nceHcYpzc_LdALQHy3CAtJ2m3W99qsH8xgDUo8NpwPqT2PPbJTHZwQHSvQeq_bm1xE/s1600/heroes.jpg" height="217" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 18 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my last post I featured Bärbel Inhelder's work on <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">deductive reasoning</a> and her work with Jean Piaget on the formal operations stage of cognitive development. In this post, we will explore the work of Carl Jung on archetypes and synchronicity. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature. Warning: this is an unconventional theory...<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />Swiss psychologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung">Carl Jung</a> was interested in the mystical and symbolic aspects of human thought, and his research largely focused on the esoteric and spiritual. One of Jung's theories was concerned with so-called coincidences and whether they had any meaning. Known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronicity">synchronicity</a>, Jung's theory was that the seemingly random yet synchronised occurrence of two events could be related to a higher degree than mere chance.<br /><br />Synchronicity has been experienced by many people. Here's just one very strange example: A 10 year old girl called Laura Buxton from Stoke-on-Trent once released a balloon with a message attached. The message read: If you find this balloon, please write to me. The balloon was found by another 10 year old girl 140 miles away in Wiltshire. Her name was also Laura Buxton. Both girls realised when they corresponded that they had many more things in common, even down to the colour of the patches on their pet guinea pigs. A lifetime of friendship followed.<br /><br />It was coincidences such as these, which on the face of it seem highly improbable, that Jung set out to investigate. His conclusion was that such strange, inexplicable coincidences were more common than we might expect. He saw them as evidence that some kind of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_unconscious">collective unconsciousness</a> was at work across the entire human race, and that this 'governing dynamic' encompassed our social, psychological, spiritual and emotional experiences. This collective unconsciousness does not develop individually, he claimed, but rather is inherited by all humans in the form of <i>"pre-existent forms, the <a href="http://www.soulcraft.co/essays/the_12_common_archetypes.html">archetypes</a>, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents"</i> (Jung, 1996). The archetypes, Jung believed, are mythical character types that reside in the collective unconsciousness of people the world over. They are universally understood and whatever our culture, we all recognise who they are, in stories, history, superstition and even in religious traditions.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />Archetype theory is a contentious and unconventional explanation of human behaviour, but this hasn't prevented it from being applied extensively in psychology. It influenced the design of many psychometric tests, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator">Myers-Briggs Type Indicator</a> - a test that supposedly indicates dominant personality type. It also features in many of the learning styles theories. Jung's identification of a number of archetypical person types such as hero, explorer, rebel and jester, are often seen in characters in popular fiction, fairy tales and proverbs. We all love a good fight between a villain and a hero and story writers play up to this. These person types seem to have a primordial nature, resonating in the thoughts of children when they read stories for themselves. Story telling can be powerful as it somehow draws on our hidden collective 'memories' and elicits emotional responses from us. Getting children to write their own imaginative stories can unleash the untapped mental energy that resides in their minds.<br /><br />The stories are easy to understand, and the tropes are familiar to us. The eternal struggle between good and evil, light against darkness and love versus hate all hold their place in our experience and imagination and according to Jung, in our collective unconsciousness. Such archetypes can be used to relate cautionary tales, celebrate success and triumph, and commiserate in failure or loss. They are tribal, offering us a common identity and drawing us together. Although it is not an empirical model, and is viewed by many as unscientific, Jung's theory could possibly be useful as an explanation of the social and cultural movements we see on the web, particularly memes and viral content.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Jung, C. G. (1996) <i>The Archetypes and the Collective Unconsciousness. </i>London: Routledge.<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />1. Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />2. Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />3. Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />4. Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />5. Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />6. Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />7. Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />8. Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />9. Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />10. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />11. Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />12. Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />13. Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />14. Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />15. Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />16. Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br />17. Inhelder and Piaget <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/the-shape-of-minds-to-come.html">Formal Operations Stage</a><br /><br />Image <a href="http://www.dvice.com/archives/2011/07/summer_means_bi.php">source</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Heroes and villains by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-83742585408793874792014-06-18T06:49:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.570-07:00The shape of minds to come<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja5YJdUK45QOwlCD6YVPO9EstAXNveUn8L7-eRwcSxSIDqMmNvK8voam68yxBKxzh0EW2zCn5N3A7DbetH2tVe_Y3GyVrCuvgLH0cyYHif1Buh31D_0ev2XGKrvl8knJOQdd49y6TWePk/s1600/Thinker+revised.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja5YJdUK45QOwlCD6YVPO9EstAXNveUn8L7-eRwcSxSIDqMmNvK8voam68yxBKxzh0EW2zCn5N3A7DbetH2tVe_Y3GyVrCuvgLH0cyYHif1Buh31D_0ev2XGKrvl8knJOQdd49y6TWePk/s1600/Thinker+revised.jpg" height="400" width="285" /></a></div>This is number 17 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my most recent post I featured Hull's <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction theory</a> and its applications to education. In this post, we will explore the work of Bärbel Inhelder on deductive reasoning. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />Swiss psychologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A4rbel_Inhelder">Bärbel Inhelder</a> is perhaps the best known of Piaget's collaborators. She made some important contributions to his stages of cognitive development theory (which will be featured in greater depth in some upcoming articles on this blog). Inhelder was particularly interested in how children's minds develop to the point where they can reason for themselves. Her work with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> led to the proposal that there is a 'formal operations' stage marking the transition from childhood to adolescence. They argued that when children reach the age of about 11 years old, they are capable of using deductive reasoning to make sense of the world around them.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />Inhelder's work with Piaget was instrumental in shaping the way schools are organised today and is a key influence on the design of curricula. The transition between primary (elementary) school and secondary (high) school is marked when children reach the age of 11 (or 12 in some countries such as Scotland).<br /><br />It could be argued that these decisions were made because of Inhelder and Piaget's cognitive stages theory. The <a href="http://www.simplypsychology.org/formal-operational.html">Formal Operations stage</a> is where children are capable of higher order thinking such as abstract reasoning - imagining the outcome of their actions, and it is also the stage of development where they can develop their inferential reasoning skills. A good example of inferential reasoning in education is where the teacher presents students with puzzles or challenges as a part of their learning: 'If George is older than David, and David is older than Michael, who is the oldest?' Inferential reasoning skills can be developed over time as children learn about new concepts, how they compare, and how to make decisions. The ability to deduce from the general to the specific is the basis of all good science, and runs consistently through a number of disciplines such as mathematics and statistical analysis. <br /><br />Deductive reasoning methods can therefore also be applied to good effect in just about any lesson on any subject. Students could be encouraged to ask 'what if?' hypothetical questions during physics or chemistry experiments, and then test out their predictions; or to predict the trajectory of a cricket ball in sport; or be asked to judge whether a statement is true or false, on the basis of evidence; or to detect grammatical errors according to 'the rules' of a language. Indeed, the entire secondary curriculum in schools is based on the premise that children between 11-16 years old have developed their higher level cognitive capabilities sufficiently enough to be able to think creatively, use abstract reasoning and perform numerical calculations.<br /><br />It should be noted that many of the theories proposed by Inhelder and Piaget are contentious and have been challenged not only on the basis of their small sample size (he mainly used his own children as subjects in his experiments) and methods, but also due to alternative findings and interpretations carried out by a number of psychologists. Are there actually stages of cognitive development, and are they as Inhelder and Piaget claimed? And of course, the most difficult problem of them all - do all children develop through these stages at the same time and in the same way? For more details on these counter arguments see the work of Margaret Donaldson.<br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></b><b style="font-weight: bold;">References</b><br /><br />Donaldson, M. (1987) <i>Children's Minds.</i> London: Fontana Press.<br />Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J. (1959) <i>The Growth of Logical Thinking From Childhood to Adolescence</i>. Basic Books.<br /><br /><b style="font-weight: bold;"><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br />Hull <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/drive-through.html">Drive Reduction Theory</a><br /><br />Photo by Steve Wheeler<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license" style="font-weight: bold;"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />The shape of minds to come by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-78349102825230475802014-06-17T15:00:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.649-07:00Drive through learning<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzUWV13hBb4NcKS2RRqBuM8p1N3igmXnE07DoIt_vbB_gzw2feHtmXSKf6maojy_mgjecWSwQ72cfrsY7REuKNezvOt13bim2BrXfgHmqzB_c69lYgavBpDH0qT5xjquOCaMP1m9RklE0/s1600/fast+food.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzUWV13hBb4NcKS2RRqBuM8p1N3igmXnE07DoIt_vbB_gzw2feHtmXSKf6maojy_mgjecWSwQ72cfrsY7REuKNezvOt13bim2BrXfgHmqzB_c69lYgavBpDH0qT5xjquOCaMP1m9RklE0/s1600/fast+food.jpg" height="275" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 16 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my most recent post I featured the theory of Heutagogy by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon and its applications to education. In this post, we will explore Clark Hull's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_reduction_theory_(learning_theory)">drive reduction theory of motivation</a>. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><b><br /></b>American psychologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_L._Hull">Clark Hull</a> is credited with developing the first theory of human motivation. Known as drive reduction theory, his approach sits in the behavioural school of thinking. Drive is the tension caused by the desire to satisfy basic biological needs such as thirst, hunger and the need for warmth. Hull believed that as we seek to maintain an internal balance (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasis">homeostasis</a>) where these needs are fulfilled, so we then repeat these behaviours (reinforcement) to maintain pleasant feelings, whilst avoiding the tension or unpleasant feelings created by the imbalance. In a nutshell, people are motivated by the need to reduce unpleasant feelings by reinstating internal biological balances.<br /><b><br /></b><b>How it can apply in education</b><br /><br />Clearly, although this was considered a useful theory many years ago, our thinking has moved on, and many behaviouristic theories such as drive theory have been largely rejected. Hull's theory fails to explain complex human behaviours with simple <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus_(psychology)">stimulus-response chains</a> that characterise behaviourism. There is no room in Hull's theory for example, to explain how humans can continue to explore their environment, solve problems and generate creative work even though they may be cold, hungry or thirsty.<br /><br />And yet, there are areas of learning within which Hull's theory could possibly apply. Elements of his theory are present in Maslow's more humanistic and learner-centred Hierarchy of Human Needs model. Although this is in itself a flawed and contentious model, Maslow's hierarchy has been used to explain more compex motivational processes. Furthermore, although drive reduction describes simple biological needs such as hunger and thirst, more complex human phenomena such as uncertainty and doubt could be considered drives which need to be reduced. Students who experience a dissonance that brings uncertainty may become anxious or stressed. If this happens students may seek to reduce this drive by putting more effort into mastering their subject.<br /><br />Or they may simply run away.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Hull, C. L. (1935). The Conflicting Psychologies of Learning: A Way Out. <i>Psychological Review</i>, 42, 491-516.<br /><b><br /></b><b><b>Previous posts in this series:</b></b><br /><br />Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br />Hase and Kenyon <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/help-yourself.html">Heutagogy</a><br /><br />Photo from <a href="http://www.robertofermino.com/blog/ninguem-vai-acreditar-em-voce-quando-comecar-alguma-coisa">Roberto Fermino blog</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br /><br />Drive through learning by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-78536275365177782482014-06-06T11:35:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.659-07:00Help yourself<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhR2Phed4Reb7EjDN1DRCzKLEn1wm0dmOHrKY1RAK3059-NBw9azOCRUaBh5Un9VscfOltA3JOlmyptkMQLpJIGffCuw77I0DhvXB2v-KDioNMpwjGLrRaHOIUhVXxyrQGnjiCRNGj5ITc/s1600/Student+tech.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhR2Phed4Reb7EjDN1DRCzKLEn1wm0dmOHrKY1RAK3059-NBw9azOCRUaBh5Un9VscfOltA3JOlmyptkMQLpJIGffCuw77I0DhvXB2v-KDioNMpwjGLrRaHOIUhVXxyrQGnjiCRNGj5ITc/s1600/Student+tech.jpg" height="320" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 15 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and theorists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my most recent post I featured Richard Gregory's <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">perceptual hypothesis</a> and its applications to education. In this post, we take a look at an emerging theory of learning proposed by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon, known as Heutagogy. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heutagogy">Heutagogy</a> is a theory that focuses on meta-learning (learning to learn), <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">double loop learning</a> (reflection on learning), and <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/theories-for-digital-age-postmodern.html">non-linear forms of learning</a>, but ultimately it is about the study of self-determined learning. I would like to argue that technology plays a key role in this process. There is a sense that personal technologies encourage learners to be self-determined in their approach to education. <a href="http://heutagogycop.wordpress.com/tag/stewart-hase/">Stewart Hase</a> and Chris Kenyon’s (2007) conceptualisation of self determined learning places the emphasis on non-linear, self-directed and self-regulated forms of learning, and embraces both formal and informal education contexts. The central tenet of heutagogy is that people inherently know how to learn, and will pursue that learning if they are interested enough.<br /><br />The role of formal education is to enable them to confidently develop these skills, encouraging them to critically evaluate and interpret their own personal reality according to their own personal skills and competencies. The ethos of heutagogy extends to learner choice, where students can create their own programmes of study, a feature often seen in the loosely aggregated and unstructured aspects of some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_open_online_course">Massive Open Online Courses</a>. In many ways, heutagogy is aligned to other digital age theories, in that it places an importance on ‘learning to learn’, and the sharing rather than hoarding of that knowledge. It is not difficult to see that such sharing of knowledge can be easily achieved through social media and the use of personal digital technologies.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied to education</b><br /><br />Clearly, heutagogy is a specific kind of learning theory, in the sense that it points out the distinction between self-determined learning and learning that is more likely to be driven by formal pedagogy. In essence, it highlights the differences between intrinsic and <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/f/extrinsic-motivation.htm">extrinsic motivation</a>, and the potentially different learning outcomes each might yield. Heutagogy can of course be viewed as an explanation of learning that occurs both inside and outside of formal contexts, but really comes into its own when applied to informal learning.<br /><br />The question that is often uppermost in the minds of good educators is how to inspire students to go 'the extra mile' and begin to take the responsibility to learn for themselves. <a href="http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/resources/detail/internationalisation/isl_independent_learning">Independent learning</a>, one of the central tenets of heutagogy, usually becomes evident when students become so fascinated by their topic that they can do nothing else but continue to pursue a deeper understanding of it. The era of personal technologies is one of the most important factors in the rise of heutagogy, and will be instrumental in sustaining it. Teachers should consider that students' personal technologies should not be banned from the classroom, but could instead be integrated into lessons and embedded as <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2013/09/mind-technology.html">mind tools</a> to extend and enrich the experience of learning.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Hase, S. and Kenyon, C. (2001) From Andragogy to Heutagogy. Available <a href="http://www.psy.gla.ac.uk/~steve/pr/Heutagogy.html">online here</a> (Retrieved 6 June, 2014).<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><br />Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br />Gregory <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-think.html">Visual Perception Hypothesis</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/baratunde/416644336/">Baratunde Thurston</a> on Flickr<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Help yourself by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-175149168078615382014-06-04T15:31:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.739-07:00What you see is what you think<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEJsjidwNd436-1ooHHEqHFppkL8UT8tNXHefuJKDQ3IRkK68edKhHqIhdu6wSzQ7khkjhG9lNnZMP4gip4B4oqj1Z0WzzyRZelM0-NroCZsHkPkunTfu6OMDQ48Mymyrz_5XtwxJ6mDo/s1600/1+Penrosetrianglemodel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEJsjidwNd436-1ooHHEqHFppkL8UT8tNXHefuJKDQ3IRkK68edKhHqIhdu6wSzQ7khkjhG9lNnZMP4gip4B4oqj1Z0WzzyRZelM0-NroCZsHkPkunTfu6OMDQ48Mymyrz_5XtwxJ6mDo/s1600/1+Penrosetrianglemodel.jpg" height="298" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A 3D Printed version of the Penrose Triangle</td></tr></tbody></table>This is number 14 in my series on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my most recent post I discussed J J Gibson's <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">affordances theory</a> and its applications to education. In this post, we explore an alternative perspective on visual perception as proposed by British psychologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Gregory">Richard Gregory</a>. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />There are essentially two main explanations of visual perception. One is the direct perception approach proposed by James Gibson, which was discussed in my <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">last blog post</a>. Gibson's belief in a direct, bottom-up perception is often called the ecological model of perception, because it holds that all the possible uses (or affordances) of the object are embedded in its form. Once the object is seen, its affordances aid us in deciding how it is possible to use the object. It has been said that this interpretation of perception is 'data driven'. It is a case of 'what you see is what you get.'<br /><br />Opposed to this is the top-down theory of visual perception, which was proposed by Richard Gregory. Gregory's theory suggests that the experience and previous encounters with similar objects comes first, before we even begin to examine the affordances of the object. Gregory calls this <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_perception">indirect perception</a>, because a large percentage of the visual information is 'lost' before it reaches the brain for processing. This theory explains the confusion we sometimes experience when we see an optical illusion. Gregory describes top-down processing as a perceptual hypothesis - we form this hypothesis by testing what we see against our previous knowledge and understanding - in other words, we match patterns. Some illusions make us misinterpret what we see, because we fail to match the correct previously learnt patterns to what we are seeing. Gregory's theory is more a case of 'what you see is what you think'.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />According to this theory we make sense of the world around us through pattern recognition and matching. If children find it difficult to read some words, they can often make sense of the entire sentence by recognising the surrounding words, and then recreating the correct context within their minds. Gestalt psychology suggests something similar in the <a href="http://jeremybolton.com/2009/09/gestalt-design-principles-the-law-of-closure/">Law of Closure</a>.<br /><br />Simple tests where children are required to fill in the gaps in a sentence may therefore have less value in assessing knowledge than we think. On the other hand, teachers might consider giving students more complex versions. For example, presenting students with challenges to complete (or develop) half finished stories or artifacts could tap into great creative potential. Students will need to call upon previously learnt knowledge and also draw on their imagination to successfully complete these kinds of tasks.<br /><br />According to Gregory, we actively construct our reality. Students should therefore be given as many chances as possible during lessons to do just that. Providing them with challenges, problems and questions, or better still - encouraging them to question - will help to support deeper learning through active engagement. Giving children only a part of the whole will challenge them to complete the rest themselves. They will have a strong desire to 'complete the circle', because it is inherent in human nature to make sense of what we see.<br /><br /><b>References</b><br /><br />Gregory, R. L. (1970) <i>The Intelligent Eye</i>. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.<br />Gregory, R. L. (1974) <i>Concepts and Mechanisms of Perception</i>. London: Duckworth.<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><br />Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br />Gibson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/what-you-see-is-what-you-get.html">Affordances Theory</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose_triangle#mediaviewer/File:Penrosetrianglemodel.jpg">Chylld</a> on Wikimedia Commons<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />What you see is what you think by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-21956882183506651442014-06-03T12:03:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.752-07:00What you see is what you get<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjsWDpmU5D6YBXqAlwF8FQ2F60Tqa-o-dOTxyvRq_pndQDRULQkMLY-0nFCbX1rbxAepBCfCyjSuRV4K89nz2ZCq4bZxYFnIyE_aank6mPtdp0_CKbLSJZKUjf-HSsK5NrPwll84Pm3Zo/s1600/teaset.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjsWDpmU5D6YBXqAlwF8FQ2F60Tqa-o-dOTxyvRq_pndQDRULQkMLY-0nFCbX1rbxAepBCfCyjSuRV4K89nz2ZCq4bZxYFnIyE_aank6mPtdp0_CKbLSJZKUjf-HSsK5NrPwll84Pm3Zo/s1600/teaset.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></div>Here is number 13 in my series of short posts on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists, providing a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my most recent post I examined Howard Gardner's theory of <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">multiple intelligences</a> and its applications to education. In this post, we explore the work of James Jerome Gibson on the perception of everyday objects and his theory of affordances. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><b><br /></b>During the 80s and 90s there was a <a href="http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/The_media_debate">protracted debate</a> between Richard Clark and Robert Kozma. Clark held that media were neutral and didn't influence learning whilst Kozma argued that media were laced with nuances that <a href="http://robertkozma.com/images/kozma_will_media_influence.pdf">shaped our behaviour</a> as we used them. Even before this, during the 60s, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a> had famously proclaimed that we shape our tools and then our tools shape us', but had then gone on to argue that 'the medium is the message'. The waters were well and truly muddied and many were bemused by the entire discourse around media. Are they neutral tools or are they loaded with meaning - and do they actually influence learning in any way?<br /><br />Even before any of the above discussions took place, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Gibson">James Gibson</a>, a psychologist studying human perception presented an interesting theory that framed the entire debate. In 1950 Gibson proposed that visual perception was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_perception">direct perception</a>. That is, what we see and the meaning we extract from it is directly obtained from the appearance of the object we are looking at. We see the object <i>as it is</i>. Correctly referred to as the ecological model of visual perception, we process the world we see bottom up, not top down.<br /><br />Gibson later proposed that each object has affordances - the shape and design of the object suggests to us (possibly from our previous experiences) what we can do with the object and what we cannot do with it. A door handle provides us with the affordance of twisting and pushing (or pulling) and may also have a right-handed or left-handed affordance depending on which side of the door we are standing. A teapot and cups such as those in the image above also have affordances suggested by their shapes and their handles - and possibly even their relative positions to each other in space. Affordance theory represents the relationship between the design of an everyday object and its perceived purpose.<br /><br /><b>How it can apply to education</b><br /><br />Some teachers might be surprised to hear that all children are creative. Most would understand however, that all children have wonderful imaginations, and can <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent_thinking">think divergently</a> about almost anything if they are given the chance. Ask a young child how many uses there are for a brick, or a paper clip or a cup, and they will come up with hundreds of possible uses. This is because their creativity knows no bounds, and they are not influenced by a lifetime of learning that some things are not permissible or possible. Adults don't think of a paper clip that is a mile high and made of rubber, or a cup that can hold a million gallons of lemonade. As children grow older, this kind of divergent thinking sadly fades as they are indoctrinated into understanding 'the rules'. And yet Gibson's affordances theory implies that the use of the object, even if it is designed for specific purposes, can in fact be interpreted for other purposes by the perceiver. If this is true, then teachers have a huge opportunity to promote better learning through creativity. They could for example bring objects into the classroom as a part of a lesson to promote creative thinking and better problem solving skills.<br /><br />Conversely, it is clear that good design makes the intended uses of objects much more explicit. The design of computer interfaces, software, games and even curricula, should be undertaken with affordances in mind. Designers can send direct messages to potential users simply by designing easily interpreted and unambiguous features into objects. These principles have spawned an entirely different approach to education which involves active engagement through design thinking, solution based learning, and even learning through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicked_problems">wicked problems</a> (a form of problem based learning). For example, where do young people turn to when the answer to a question is not Googleable? And we would still like to know ... do media influence learning?<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><b><br /></b>Gibson, J.J. (1950) <i>The Perception of the Visual World</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><br />Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br />Gardner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/many-pathways.html">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2004_MujiWanoSyokki-TeasetMug_Masahiro-Mori.jpg">Mori Masahiro</a> on Wikimedia Commons<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />What you see is what you get by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-59824012408152065222014-06-02T02:11:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.832-07:00Many pathways<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirDLP2VCUkCUguuYmNl3FOO1WHT9EiCcwz3FaNhGic_YIRmPlOBLKsHpEm6SQzhRN6FDrJ-oFvXVzx9qi_a5Qek1azQyD2BXhl9d0tFB2zt2jyzW7vDP5Mfqpz0axzrehCDZ4CfBVG25Q/s1600/Trees.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirDLP2VCUkCUguuYmNl3FOO1WHT9EiCcwz3FaNhGic_YIRmPlOBLKsHpEm6SQzhRN6FDrJ-oFvXVzx9qi_a5Qek1azQyD2BXhl9d0tFB2zt2jyzW7vDP5Mfqpz0axzrehCDZ4CfBVG25Q/s1600/Trees.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 12 in my series of short posts on learning theories. I'm working through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my most recent post I examined Leon Festinger's <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">cognitive dissonance theory</a> and its applications to education. In this post, we explore the work of Howard Gardner, known universally as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences">Multiple Intelligences Theory</a>. As usual, this is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><div><b><br /></b>Intelligence testing has long been practised in the education, military and business communities. In business and the military it is used to correlate intelligence quotient (IQ) scores against performance. Essentially, IQ is a psychological measurement of individual differences. In education, IQ testing has been used to measure children's intelligence so that they can be placed in the appropriate ability group. Later in life, students can be IQ tested for admission into university. Yet IQ has been shown to fluctuate over a period of time, and is now viewed by many as an <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/iq-tests-are-fundamentally-flawed-and-using-them-alone-to-measure-intelligence-is-a-fallacy-study-finds-8425911.html">unreliable indicator</a> of holistic abilities and potential. One critic of IQ tests, <a href="http://howardgardner.com/">Howard Gardner</a> - a professor of psychology at Harvard University - argued that it IQ tests were too limited and only measured specific abilities such as visual-spatial awareness and logical-mathematical reasoning. He surmised that there must be a better way of showing how individuals differ in their potential and actual abilities. Gardner developed a new approach to the study of intelligence, by proposing a theory of multiple intelligences. <br /><br />In MI, according to Gardner, there are at least <a href="http://skyview.vansd.org/lschmidt/Projects/The%20Nine%20Types%20of%20Intelligence.htm">nine discrete intelligences</a>, including interpersonal, intra-personal, existential, spatial, mathematical, naturalistic and musical. Each can be developed in every individual, depending not only on their natural abilities, but also on their motivation and other external factors. Gardner argues that each individual has a unique blend of intelligences, and that labeling students as being predominantly one kind of intelligence is inaccurate and disempowering. In short, there are many pathways to learning, and we all choose our own.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />Gardner's theory is a student centred theory in as much as it recognises the many individual differences and acknowledges that there are many ways to learn. Teachers should be aware that every child is different, and will excel in different circumstances. This means varying the pace, focus, method and content of lessons so that a menu of different experiences are available. It also means rejecting the labeling of children as failures or lacking intelligence because they do not excel in particular subjects. Not all children have good logical or mathematical skills, but they can be taught to acquire them if the subject is made interesting. For Gardner, a rounded education is where all children are served by a 'broader vision of education' where a wide range of methods, experiences and opportunities are presented.<br /><br />Schools do not fail because they do not call at every station along the curriculum. They fail because their pedagogic carriage is restricted, and they are unable to bring all the children with them on the education journey.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><b><br /></b>Gardner, H. (1983) <i>Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences</i>. London: Fontana Press.<br /><b><br /></b></div><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><br />Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">Social Comparison Theory</a><br />Festinger <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/06/conflict-resolution.html">Cognitive Dissonance Theory</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/simonsterg/125291276/">Simon G</a> on Flickr<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Many pathways <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-74896532111528755732014-06-01T05:35:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.845-07:00Conflict resolution<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOlGCEmd6Zk-qraMrDiv1jI4kc8f_ittOvQ-oZTMaactFc8fOyc4MMcw86gvEB-TwNm4ZZbwQsjkL1ndbqrtKoSd_97jbZCZElnsH7tuHjj_-lljAhyphenhyphenRmKEqqv698AOxQJLWmDg-A-y_Q/s1600/child+thinking.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOlGCEmd6Zk-qraMrDiv1jI4kc8f_ittOvQ-oZTMaactFc8fOyc4MMcw86gvEB-TwNm4ZZbwQsjkL1ndbqrtKoSd_97jbZCZElnsH7tuHjj_-lljAhyphenhyphenRmKEqqv698AOxQJLWmDg-A-y_Q/s1600/child+thinking.jpg" /></a></div>This is number 11 in my series of short posts on learning theories. My intention is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In my most recent post I examined Leon Festinger's work on <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/go-compare.html">social comparison</a> and its applications to education. In this post, we continue to explore Festinger's work, this time focusing on his theory of cognitive dissonance. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />American psychologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Festinger">Leon Festinger</a> was interested in the conflict that we experience when our beliefs or values do not coincide with other values and beliefs. We naturally like consistency but if this consistency is challenged by external influences, we experience discomfort, and tend to attempt to rationalise this through reasoning. Festinger called this phenomenon <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/dissonance.htm">cognitive dissonance</a>. In effect, says Festinger, we seek to reduce our dissonance through attempting to rationalise our thoughts and beliefs and those with which they conflict. This may emerge as modified behaviour to reduce the dissonance, or alternatively an entrenchment of our previous beliefs and a rejection of those inconsistent with our own beliefs. Cognitive dissonance is essentially a theory of motivation through conflict resolution.<br /><br />Here is one of Festinger's examples of cognitive dissonance in real life: <i>"The person who continues to smoke, knowing that it is bad for his health, may also feel (a) he enjoys smoking so much it is worth it; (b) the chances of his health suffering are not as serious as some would make out; (c) he can't always avoid every possible dangerous contingency and still live; and (d) perhaps even if he stopped smoking he would put on weight which is equally bad for his health. So, continuing to smoke is, after all, consistent with his ideas about smoking." </i>(Festinger, 1957, p 2)<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />A lot of learning is based upon making decisions and solving problems. Indeed, problem based learning is thought to be one of the most effective <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situated_learning">situated learning</a> methods. Some problems we encounter in education have conflicting outcomes. As <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/dissonance.htm">Kendra Cherry</a> argues: <i>"Cognitive dissonance plays a role in many value judgements, decisions and evaluations. Becoming aware of how conflicting beliefs impact the decision-making process is a great way to improve your ability to make faster and more accurate choices." </i>Teachers should be aware that often, such conflicting outcomes can lead to confusion. However, if managed appropriately, this can be a positive motivator for students to learn more. Ill-structured problems, where the problem is only partially defined and where students need to 'fill in the gaps' discover that such problems can have several possible solutions. Each solution is valid, and deeper learning occurs through discussion between students on which solution is the best.<br /><br />I have previously stated that I sometimes send my students out confused. This is a deliberate pedagogical method to spur them on to learn more - to attempt to reduce their cognitive dissonance by wider study of their course material and deeper critical reflection on their learning.<br /><br />Often in learning, our expectations are not realised by the reality of a situation. This results in disappointment, which can be described as a form of cognitive dissonance. How we cope with this disappointment defines who we become. Teachers should be aware that not all disappointment is negative, and that some experiences where reality does not meet expectation could be exactly the motivation students need to try harder. As ever however, such classroom tactics should be premised on a good knowledge of one's students.<br /><br />Even in behaviour management, cognitive dissonance can provide some useful guidance. Where behaviour is concerned, personal learning through reasoning is stronger than the threat of punishment. Hans and Michael Eysenck (1981) wrote that teaching children that stone-throwing is anti-social can be more effective if they are challenged to think about their actions, rather than being threatened with punishment. They comment that it is better for a child to reduce his cognitive dissonance by reasoning that he should stop throwing stones because he realises it is wrong, than to think 'I was forced to stop throwing stones but I still want to do it'. If he reasons for himself, he is more likely to think 'I don't really want to throw stones anyway.'<br /><br />Here are a few <a href="http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/dissonance.htm">more ideas</a> on how cognitive dissonance could be applied in education.<br /><br /><b>References</b><br /><b><br /></b>Eysenck, H. and Eysenck, M. (1981) <i>Mindwatching</i>. London: Book Club Associates.<br />Festinger, L. (1957) <i>A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance</i>. Los Angeles: Stanford University Press.<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><b><br /></b>Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br />Festinger Social Comparison Theory<br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/brennaphotos/4111187664/">Brenna Lyn</a> on Flickr<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Conflict resolution <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-72232108778159115042014-05-31T04:07:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.925-07:00Go compare<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpEY9OAP_vQ974DujAzLcHOW2f_00DhNE8ErERZv_nZr4rJVVZxsA8Er-FFpltswW4ZhVxTqF3vr4fCRjRftb7Vy-WKPC3oyi7g1Ien-Ia60RtrRlv4Ucec9z73vSK3r0fLSI_I2nEU74/s1600/Apple_and_Orange_-_they_do_not_compare.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpEY9OAP_vQ974DujAzLcHOW2f_00DhNE8ErERZv_nZr4rJVVZxsA8Er-FFpltswW4ZhVxTqF3vr4fCRjRftb7Vy-WKPC3oyi7g1Ien-Ia60RtrRlv4Ucec9z73vSK3r0fLSI_I2nEU74/s1600/Apple_and_Orange_-_they_do_not_compare.jpg" height="273" width="400" /></a></div>We reach double figures with number 10 in my series of short blog posts on learning theories. My intention is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">my last post</a> I examined Hermann Ebbinghaus work on memory and forgetting and its applications to education. In this post, we explore the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Festinger">Leon Festinger</a>, namely social comparison theory. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />We all want to know how well we are doing. According to Festinger, associating with other people allows us to evaluate our own strengths and weaknesses. Being around other people also helps us to assess our own biases, skills and knowledge. This is particularly true in cases where there are no defined boundaries or objective standards for us to adhere to. In such uncertainty, says Festinger, it's good to be around other people. We often gauge our own reactions to something on the basis of how it compares to the reactions of others around us. This is social comparison, and influences the way we behave and think, the clothes we wear and even the way we speak. The theory explains how we acquire regional accents, why we become slaves to fashion, how we adopt new ideas and even the way a group can reach a consensus of opinion over seemingly insoluble problems.<br /><br />Festinger demonstrated that anxious individuals preferred to be in the company of others if there was an unknown outcome or an unfamiliar experience to face. There is a sense of solidarity that we are 'all in this together', and that we are not alone in our doubts or anxieties. Clearly, there is safety in numbers.<br /><br />One of the most important findings in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_comparison_theory">social comparison theor</a>y says Festinger, is that we tend to compare ourselves upwards (against those who have a perceived higher status) and downwards (against those we perceive as having a lower status, who are considered more unfortunate). At the heart of social comparison theory is the concept of self evaluation - each person has different personal goals in life, and the level of their engagement in social comparison depends on this.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />Many studies have been published on the detrimental potential of social comparison on <a href="http://www.hss.caltech.edu/~lyariv/papers/DarkSide1.pdf">self image</a> and also on <a href="http://opim.wharton.upenn.edu/DPlab/papers/workingPapers/Dunn_working_It%20Hurts%20Both%20Ways.pdf">cognitive and affective trust</a> between individuals. Teachers should be aware that social comparison can have a negative influence on students' self evaluation. This will probably become most evident in mixed ability classes. If children are constantly working alongside others who consistently achieve higher, their self esteem may suffer and they may eventually give up. Conversely, children who are high flyers may be dragged down by lower achievers.<br /><br />On a more positive note, children who compare themselves to others who are higher achievers may be inspired to work harder themselves. If the ability is present to succeed, then upward social comparison may work positively as an extrinsic motivator. High achievers could be asked to support their weaker peers and in so doing, might strengthen their own abilities and knowledge as they teach (downward social comparison) as described in <a href="http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/Dissertations/Hope%20Wilson.pdf">this dissertation</a>. Teachers should be aware of both the positive and negative implications of this theory and manage their classes accordingly. It's a fine balance between success and failure, and this is another good reason why teachers need to become familiar with the abilities and potential of each and every one of their students.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Festinger, L. (1954) A theory of social comparison processes. <i>Human Relations,</i> 7, 117-140.<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><b><br /></b>Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br />Ebbinghaus <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/a-steep-learning-curve.html">Learning and Forgetting Curves</a><br /><br />Photo by Michael Johnson on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apple_and_Orange_-_they_do_not_compare.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Go compare <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-70019185251742313502014-05-30T02:15:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:24.937-07:00A steep learning curve<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbKohlWjNRfA4s3VZIjxtFXgDw6H7x9rlpjWUhpEliBzFCNCgvjqkBGYVsTIBMcqAXOLf0KRq3sU2_DuEfai2mX3zCIaeGszene_XNqhROD5ocWGC5r7jqxpouwoPspr-IvnimScAhLYA/s1600/mountain+road.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbKohlWjNRfA4s3VZIjxtFXgDw6H7x9rlpjWUhpEliBzFCNCgvjqkBGYVsTIBMcqAXOLf0KRq3sU2_DuEfai2mX3zCIaeGszene_XNqhROD5ocWGC5r7jqxpouwoPspr-IvnimScAhLYA/s1600/mountain+road.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a>This is number 9 in my series on learning theories. My intention is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In the last post we examined Yrjö Engeström's Second Generation <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_theory">Activity Theory</a> and its applications to education. In this post, we explore the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus on memory and learning. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the associated literature.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />It should be noted that the work of Ebbinghaus is not regarded as a 'theory' of learning, but borrows quite heavily from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">behaviourist theory</a>, as evidenced through the 'drill and practice' and reinforcement schedules he recommends. His studies can be considered to represent a 'model' or explanation of how memory functions.<br /><br />We often hear people say they are 'on a steep learning curve'. What they usually mean is that they have a lot to learn, not enough time to learn it in, or that they are finding it difficult. The term '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_curve">learning curve</a>' actually derives from the work of German psychologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a>, who studied memory and recall. In fact, he was probably the first psychologist to conduct experimental research into human memory. Ebbinghaus was interested in discovering why when we learn new information, it tends to fade away over a period of time. He referred to this as the forgetting curve and mapped it using graphs.<br /><br />What he also discovered was that over time, if learning is rehearsed and repeated at regular intervals, we actually forget less. He also found that there is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_effect">spacing effect</a> that influences how much we can recall over a period of time. The frequency of repetition and rehearsal, if spaced at intervals, promotes better recall of memory than if the information is presented in one long burst. When expressed statistically, the learning curve, if steep, represents a quick accumulation of knowledge, and rapid progress in learning expressed through recall from memory. <br /><br /><b>How it can be applied to education</b><br /><br />Teachers know that content can be presented in a variety of sequences, but that some sequences are more effective than others. The reason for this is that some kinds of content are easier to remember than others, depending on their difficulty levels as well as their juxtaposition. Teachers should know that <a href="http://www.lancsngfl.ac.uk/secondary/math/download/file/How%20the%20Brain%20Learns%20by%20David%20Sousa.pdf">primacy recency effects</a> are often present in the forgetting curve. This means that the first content that is presented in a lesson (primacy) and the most recent content that is presented (recency) are the most readily recalled by learners. According to Ebbinghaus, difficult concepts should thus be presented first and then reiterated at the end of the lesson. For the more difficult content, regular revision over time can be more effective than a single mass delivery. What is even more effective is when the content is applied in <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/10-characteristics-of-authentic-learning.html">authentic contexts</a>, and where learners have the chance to rehearse and stregthen their recall. These opportunities can be built into a scheme of work, and applied during lessons.<br /><br />When it comes to revising for an exam, the spacing effect comes into play. It is better to revise content over a longer period of time in the run up to an exam, than it is to do last minute 'cramming'. Memory of information is more resilient if it is made meaningful by the learner.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Cherry, K. (2014) <i>Forgetting: When memory fails</i>. About.com Psychology. Available online <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/forgetting.htm">at this link</a>.<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><b><br /></b>Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br />Engeström <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/activity-learning.html">Activity Theory</a><br /><br />Photo by ericd on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Col_de_Braus-small.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />A steep learning curve <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-10161974054246888032014-05-29T17:39:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:21:56.846-07:00Stalking Death<h3 style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #e69138;">Painted 15m Chuhuac Special Ops Sniper</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Hey folks,<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Today, I had a chance to have fun with one of my absolute favorite miniatures from the Chuhuac range. The figure is the sniper from <span style="color: #e69138;"><b>RAP005 Chuhuac Special Ops.</b></span><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0286/8990/products/rap005_500pix_1024x1024.jpg?v=1394287095" height="206" width="640" /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #e69138;"><b>RAP005 Chuhuac Special Ops </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I wanted to paint him in a color scheme that was more subdued than the one shown in the catalog pictures which are designed to show the figure clearly.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><img height="300" src="https://scontent-a-sea.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-xpa1/t1.0-9/10300224_666128776770087_5559067575856618599_n.jpg" width="400" /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><img height="300" src="https://scontent-a-sea.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-xpa1/t1.0-9/10410847_666128780103420_8342302623045626464_n.jpg" width="400" /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Today's project was designed to really display the sniper in action. He's in cover, in a position where he can hunker down with his accelerator gun to support the rest of his team as they move forward.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: center;"><img height="240" src="https://scontent-b-sea.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-xpf1/t1.0-9/10376334_666128770103421_4572695726157807596_n.jpg" width="320" /> <img height="240" src="https://scontent-b-sea.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-xfp1/l/t1.0-9/10367819_666128773436754_1475921012668506608_n.jpg" width="320" /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">This miniatures and others can be found - <a href="http://www.15mm.co.uk/collections/loud-ninja-games">HERE</a><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Enjoy!<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">-Eli</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-82055071892327175262014-05-27T04:51:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:25.017-07:00Activity learning<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhaGG39rFz8jAqmeRZKVsl4Z1f6k9b42Jj0iGwar5Q8NDFQIYjS58xsPebsJxd3s2nChvRVMmVl0EEBiiG0wibEy_JmfuaNZE7psYhtLVX-RPmXcJ_OWOJWdGool8vqbWwP1cmamK8tGdY/s1600/Our_Community_Place_Sandbox.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhaGG39rFz8jAqmeRZKVsl4Z1f6k9b42Jj0iGwar5Q8NDFQIYjS58xsPebsJxd3s2nChvRVMmVl0EEBiiG0wibEy_JmfuaNZE7psYhtLVX-RPmXcJ_OWOJWdGool8vqbWwP1cmamK8tGdY/s1600/Our_Community_Place_Sandbox.jpg" height="371" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 8 in my series on learning theories. My intention is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of each theory, and how it can be applied in education. In the last post we examined the various educational theories of <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/dewey/">John Dewey</a> including <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">experiential learning</a>. In this post, we explore the work of Yrjö Engeström on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_theory">Activity Theory</a>. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please refer to the original work of the theorist.<br /><br />Activity Theory (AT) originated in Soviet Russia from the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksei_N._Leontiev">Leont'ev</a> on Cultural Historical psychology and <a href="http://www.ap.org.ru/eng/rubin.htm">Rubenstein</a> and others on related neuropsychological perspectives. It is a complex theory which draws on a number of disciplines and it has far reaching implications for education. The Scandinavian school of thought that has developed around AT is arguably the most referred to in the literature and is largely based on the work of Yrjö Engeström.<br /><br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiW8e_LIJ9in3l2dLOqggZCucT7vIPlZGdypMLMDR8rVgqGTGpB59ZA7q7DPeeWyLCZDJns8mllga2GgRJEDH9FLDbBNbLnALvY2tsHTOfn8bwze_XuNV0Zb2u3NIp0vrYlAeSdjAX6oPU/s1600/AT+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiW8e_LIJ9in3l2dLOqggZCucT7vIPlZGdypMLMDR8rVgqGTGpB59ZA7q7DPeeWyLCZDJns8mllga2GgRJEDH9FLDbBNbLnALvY2tsHTOfn8bwze_XuNV0Zb2u3NIp0vrYlAeSdjAX6oPU/s1600/AT+1.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 1: Second generation Activity Theory</td></tr></tbody></table><b>The theory </b><br /><br />Vygotsky's earlier concept of mediation, which encompassed learning alongside others (Zone of Proximal Development) and through interaction with artefacts, was the basis for Engeström's version of AT (known as Scandinavian Activity Theory). Engeström's approach was to explain human thought processes not simply on the basis of the individual, but in the wider context of the individual's interactions within the social world through artefacts, and specifically in situations where activities were being produced.<br /><br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOfdDpbh0ofmGKE1Pm2wLcxzxc4MJnK8_yKezG6zERLL-LWaUICpDWVWP2OIip1XYsTPvjgFgzXEQCcBtLSgjh4cuupjGKHzpL4jtYJUG0KWMaW18Rkq8htNvU_e9XZX7AcsR0lxXU61A/s1600/AT+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOfdDpbh0ofmGKE1Pm2wLcxzxc4MJnK8_yKezG6zERLL-LWaUICpDWVWP2OIip1XYsTPvjgFgzXEQCcBtLSgjh4cuupjGKHzpL4jtYJUG0KWMaW18Rkq8htNvU_e9XZX7AcsR0lxXU61A/s1600/AT+2.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 2: Interpretation of AT in the context of digital identity</td></tr></tbody></table>In AT people (actors) use external tools (e.g. hammer, computer, car) and internal tools (e.g. plans, cognitive maps) to achieve their goals. In the social world there are many artefacts, which are seen not only as objects, but also as things that are embedded within culture, with the result that every object has cultural and/or social significance. Tools (which can limit or enable) can also be brought to bear on the mediation of social interaction, and they influence both the behaviour of the actors (those who use the tools) and also the social structure within which the actors exist (the environment, tools, artefacts). For further reading, here is Engeström's own overview of <a href="http://www.bath.ac.uk/research/liw/resources/Models%20and%20principles%20of%20Activity%20Theory.pdf">3 Generations of Activity Theory</a> development. The first figure shows Second Generation AT as it is usually presented in the literature. The second figure is my interpretation in relation to digital presence, community and identity.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education </b><br /><br />Teachers should be aware that everything in the classroom has a cultural and social meaning. The way children interact with each other and with the teacher will be mediated (influenced) by objects such as the whiteboard, furniture, technology, and even the shape, size and configuration of the room. This also includes its ambient characteristics such as lighting and noise levels. Learning occurs within these contexts, and usually through specific activities.<br /><br />Teachers should ensure that those activities are relevant and iterative, providing students with incremental challenges that they can engage with at a social level, so that the entire community of learners extends its collective knowledge through the construction of meaning. Teachers should also be aware that tools can limit as well as enable social interaction, so must be applied wisely and appropriately to promote the most effective learning.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Engeström, Y., Mietinnen, R. and Punamäki, R-L. (Eds: 1999) Perspectives on Activity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br /><br />Photo by Artaxerxes on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Our_Community_Place_Sandbox.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a><br />Graphic by Steve Wheeler<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><b><br /></b>Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br />Dewey <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/experiential-learning.html">Experiential Learning</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Activity learning <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-30323490174234872712014-05-26T04:20:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:25.031-07:00Experiential learning<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeJs3yMbsnVDYbw48CLAgFTu1QeIwsosW49fpcseBoICXrm845nwS2ATjO2L1MYUwMSkKMBGheDdTJNtFhaqZqRGUMCvbcM7gLpD5nSP61Tdyu-yGrqdWS4EftjnocFHEpbhzQ1ZWtXis/s1600/boy-110762_1280.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeJs3yMbsnVDYbw48CLAgFTu1QeIwsosW49fpcseBoICXrm845nwS2ATjO2L1MYUwMSkKMBGheDdTJNtFhaqZqRGUMCvbcM7gLpD5nSP61Tdyu-yGrqdWS4EftjnocFHEpbhzQ1ZWtXis/s1600/boy-110762_1280.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 7 in my blog series on major learning theories. My plan is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of their theories, and how each can be applied in education. In the last post we examined the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi">Mihály Csíkszentmihályi</a> on <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a>. In this post, we explore the work of John Dewey on experiential and interactive learning. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please refer to the original work of the theorist.<br /><br />John Dewey is one of the giants in the history of educational theory, and it's difficult to isolate one of his specific theories to discuss here. He was influential in so many areas of educational reform, that to choose one theme would do him a disservice, so I will highlight several of the areas in which he was ahead of his time.<br /><br /><b>The theory and how it can be applied to education</b><br /><br />Even before the constructivist theories of <a href="http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html">Jean Piaget</a> and <a href="http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html">Lev Vygotsky</a> were widely known, Dewey was talking about how children learn best when they interacted with their environments and were actively involved with the school curriculum. He rejected much of the prevalent theory of the time - <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">behaviourism</a> - as too simplistic and inadequate to explain complex learning processes. He argued that rather than the child being a passive recipient of knowledge, as was presumed by many educators of the time, children were better served if they took an active part in the process of their own learning. He also placed greater emphasis on the social context of learning. At the turn of the 20th Century, these were radical ideas. <br /><br />Dewey further argued that for education to be at its most effective, children should be given learning opportunities that enabled them to link present content to previous experiences and knowledge. Again, this was a ground breaking idea for the period. Yet another feature in Dewey's theories was the need for learners to engage directly with their environment, in what came to be known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiential_learning">experiential learning</a>, where 'knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects.' This approach led later to a number of other similar approaches such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learning">problem based learning</a> and inquiry based learning.<br /><br />Notwithstanding, Dewey was wary of placing too much emphasis on the child's abilities, but preferred to place his trust in a more balanced approach to education where teacher, students and content were given equal importance in the learning equation. Ultimately, his belief was that teachers should not be in the classroom to act simply as instructors, but should adopt the role of facilitator and guide, giving students the opportunities to discover for themselves and to develop as active and independent learners. In some schools, a return to these values is long overdue.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Dewey, J. (2011) <i>Democracy and Education. </i>Milton Keynes: Simon and Brown.<br /><br />Photo by Sharpemtbr on <a href="http://pixabay.com/en/boy-girl-children-computer-110762/">Pixabay</a><br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><b><br /></b>Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br />Csíkszentmihályi <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-flow.html">Flow Theory</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Experiential learning <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-53930022079515755482014-05-25T01:04:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:25.110-07:00In the flow<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_X6E5St86RPaBCOy32YM4JDuPrp7ilyK7_9sCLbi85-VWbxGcu_nyNBt-R8zwY_qTxi9P-ybsXKfK-KJsvsqOSSn_QRWviKt53R4kER_2hiquFhU6x9jWgflvFt35BUm6T_zbzxdmk5A/s1600/1+flow.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_X6E5St86RPaBCOy32YM4JDuPrp7ilyK7_9sCLbi85-VWbxGcu_nyNBt-R8zwY_qTxi9P-ybsXKfK-KJsvsqOSSn_QRWviKt53R4kER_2hiquFhU6x9jWgflvFt35BUm6T_zbzxdmk5A/s1600/1+flow.jpg" height="400" width="400" /></a></div>This is number 6 in my blog series on major learning theories. My plan is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of their theories, and how each can be applied in education. In the last post we examined the work of Craik and Lockhart on <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing theory</a>. In this post, we explore the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi">Mihály Csíkszentmihályi</a> on Flow Theory. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please refer to the original work of the theorist.<br /><br />There is an <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-27513174">interesting news report</a> on the BBC News website this morning. It is a piece claiming that children who use technology at home are finding that they are not able to concentrate in school. They are not able to focus, claims the report, because 'they're spending so much time on digital games or social media.' Yeah right. It's easy to blame lack of concentration on technology, but what about the quality of the lessons they are attending? The onus is on teachers to make lessons more interesting, and that is what they are trained to do. Part of the solution might be to incorporate these digital games and social media into some of the lessons. Just how can we engage students more effectively? Here's Flow Theory:<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />You know that moment when you are in the zone, on the ball, completely focused? You become so absorbed by what you are doing that your forget what the time is, you forget to eat, you miss sleep. That's essentially what flow is. According to Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, being in the flow is the ultimate in focused <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/f/intrinsic-motivation.htm">intrinsic motivation</a>. In simplistic terms, being in the flow is where students find themselves in that narrow channel between disinterest and fear. There is a fine balance between the challenge of the task, and the skills the learner has at their disposal. Maintaining this balance avoids disillusionment if your skills don't measure up to the challenge, or boredom if the task is too simple and easy to achieve. <br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPnn3ZGZ_PIc740BTAFq8_MAfYb5CAELHvElBjE-eZYDaEgt33Wlhyaz48SLBKYn_usWWq11cryg1D7Y1YLJPv2c-qqjWiKO950R5-3BtqFX3jYCXA6CkQyJPvBzlP0hAgvJTd0fLktQg/s1600/Flow+Theory.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPnn3ZGZ_PIc740BTAFq8_MAfYb5CAELHvElBjE-eZYDaEgt33Wlhyaz48SLBKYn_usWWq11cryg1D7Y1YLJPv2c-qqjWiKO950R5-3BtqFX3jYCXA6CkQyJPvBzlP0hAgvJTd0fLktQg/s1600/Flow+Theory.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />Learners who are immersed in their studies tend to be single-mindedly motivated to explore their topic. Getting them to the place where they fall so in love with learning that little else matters is another matter entirely. One of the ways teachers can help students to focus more on their studies is to make learning so irresistible that there is seems to be no other option. Games and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification">gamification</a> may offer students the fine equilibrium between boredom and anxiety, as will other forms of <a href="http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/elearninginnovation/gamingreport_v3.pdf">immersive learning</a> such as role play, simulation and problem solving. As long as the learning resource is designed to have the appropriate levels of challenge built into it, students will be interested. The graphic illustrates this clearly. P2 and P3 are positions that should be traversed quickly if students are to remain in the flow.<br /><br />To be successful, <a href="http://www.nmc.org/pdf/Challenge-Based-Learning.pdf">challenge based learning</a> requires achievable goals that require some incremental development of skills beyond the average, and where the challenge rises commensurately to match those skills (student progresses from P1 to P4). If the subject matter is made interesting and enjoyable enough, teachers won't have to work too hard to encourage students to actively engage. They will do so naturally, because they will want to rise to the challenge, and succeed because they see no other possible outcome.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Csíkszentmihályi, M. (1990) <i>Flow: The psychology of optimal experience.</i> London: Harper and Row.<br /><br /><b>Previous posts in this series:</b><br /><b><br /></b>Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br />Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a><br />Craik and Lockhart <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/deeper-learning.html">Levels of Processing</a><br /><br />Photo by Randy on <a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Scout_Girl_in_Concentration.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a><br />Graphic by Steve Wheeler<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />In the flow by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-3443249998370203562014-05-24T03:31:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:25.124-07:00Deeper learning<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg60tOCyQPjTPRKu-ZQW5Y416nM2d07vgS0AFyj8EkD43IzV4Gx6BoHzSfsbP4_u51iBJf17jo8UC2EHidALUsmps_2Mq-RhjTj_aCbAG97LZX4lC5U7afZfCq4dx30UAL18oshH0-NNMY/s1600/Scuba_diver1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg60tOCyQPjTPRKu-ZQW5Y416nM2d07vgS0AFyj8EkD43IzV4Gx6BoHzSfsbP4_u51iBJf17jo8UC2EHidALUsmps_2Mq-RhjTj_aCbAG97LZX4lC5U7afZfCq4dx30UAL18oshH0-NNMY/s1600/Scuba_diver1.jpg" height="323" width="400" /></a></div><span style="background-color: #fafafa; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue Light', HelveticaNeue-Light, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px; text-align: justify;">This is number 5 in my blog series on major learning theories. My plan is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of their theories, and how each can be applied in education. In the last post we examined the work of Jerome Bruner on <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">scaffolding</a>. In this post, we explore the work of Craik and Lockhart on levels of processing</span><span style="background-color: #fafafa; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue Light', HelveticaNeue-Light, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px; text-align: justify;">. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the original works.</span><br /><br style="background-color: #fafafa; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue Light', HelveticaNeue-Light, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: #fafafa; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue Light', HelveticaNeue-Light, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px; text-align: justify;">The theory</b><br /><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">The history of human memory research has strongly featured differences between types of memory sch as Working Memory (previously known as Short Term Memory or STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM). Other explanations of memory have focused on the functions of various types of memory, and such approaches are often referred to as multi-store theories. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">When <a href="http://www.psych.ualberta.ca/GCPWS/Craik/Biography/Craik_bio1.html">Fergus Craik</a> and <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/science/about_us/fame_lockhart.shtml">Robert Lockhart</a> researched human memory and recall, they argued that there was no clear difference between what others had identified as seemingly discrete memory stores, but that all memory was a result of the depth to which information was processed in the mind. Instead of referring to different stores of memory, Craik and Lockhart proposed that there are different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect">levels of information processing</a>. They identified at least three levels:</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">1. Structural level: This is a shallow layer of processing where we only pay attention to the outward appearance of a word (e.g. its morphology). </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">2. Phonetic level: This is a deeper level of processing where we listen to the sound of the word.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">3. Semantic level: This is the deepest level of processing where we consider the meaning of the word.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Craik and Lockhart claimed that the deeper the processing, the stronger will be the trace of that memory, and thus recall will take less cognitive effort. This framework for human memory research is considered by many cognitive psychologists to be a stronger explanation than those of the multi-store memory models. Levels of processing theory certainly does seem to explain more about the human memory than the multi-store theories, although the framework has also attracted <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/85/3/139/">some criticism</a>. It has also influenced other recently proposed cognitive processing theories including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreading_activation">spreading activation theory</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network">neural network theory</a>. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><b>How it can be applied to education</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Teachers should be aware that children can process information in different ways and at different levels as they transform it into knowledge. Educators should think about how they can encourage students to process content in deeper and more meaningful ways. For example, students process content more deeply if they have to discuss its meaning, or are involved in solving a related problem. Educators should also give students opportunities to present their learning through seminars, or through the creation of artefacts (e.g. blogs, videos, posters) to deepen the semantic processing of their learning, thereby strengthening their memories. This is one reason why participative and active forms of learning are more powerful than direct instruction through didactive methods. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><b>Reference</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Craik, F. I. M. and Lockhart, R. S. (1972) Levels of Processing: A framework for memory research. <i>Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior</i>, 11 (6), 671-684. [<a href="http://www.numyspace.co.uk/~unn_tsmc4/prac/labs/depth/craiklock.pdf">Full text here</a>]</span></span><br /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><b>Other posts in this series:</b></span></span><br /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a></span></span><br /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a></span></span><br /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a></span></span><br /><span style="background-color: #fafafa; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue Light', HelveticaNeue-Light, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Bruner <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/reaching-further.html">Scaffolding Theory</a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica Neue Light, HelveticaNeue-Light, Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #fafafa; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.600000381469727px;">Photo by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scuba_diver1.jpg">Scott Sanchez</a> on Wikimedia Commons</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Deeper learning by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-80935601981623387822014-05-22T23:16:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:25.203-07:00Reaching further<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNFxcl4jPmWDELnuEouHqNLoYKOuGs99K3sXky0jadH10zC3KbLWUPTCoVJBMsPzk4qYhEa676nEfrW1WymxR8q7pPlX9Nyd1t2QjxSKlTGxXMxnn99So7UKJQk8QdxgCgsXzwb9jvNGc/s1600/scaffold.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNFxcl4jPmWDELnuEouHqNLoYKOuGs99K3sXky0jadH10zC3KbLWUPTCoVJBMsPzk4qYhEa676nEfrW1WymxR8q7pPlX9Nyd1t2QjxSKlTGxXMxnn99So7UKJQk8QdxgCgsXzwb9jvNGc/s1600/scaffold.JPG" height="267" width="400" /></a>This is number 4 in my blog series on major learning theories. My plan is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of their theories, and how each can be applied in education. Yesterday we examined the work of Albert Bandura on social learning theory. In this post, we explore the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a> on scaffolding of learning. This is a simplified interpretation of the theory, so if you wish to learn more, please read the original works.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />Bruner's theory of scaffolding emerged around 1976 as a part of social constructivist theory, and was particularly influenced by the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky argued that we learn best in a social environment, where we construct meaning through interaction with others. His <a href="http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html">Zone of Proximal Development</a> theory, where we can learn more in the presence of a knowledgeable other person, became the template for Bruner's model.<br /><br />Bruner believed that when children start to learn new concepts, they need help from teachers and other adults in the form of active support. To begin with, they are dependent on their adult support, but as they become more independent in their thinking and acquire new skills and knowledge, the support can be gradually faded. This form of structured interaction between the child and the adult is reminiscent of the scaffolding that supports the construction of a building. It is gradually dismantled as the work is completed. In a very specific way, scaffolding represents a reduction in the many choices I child might face, so that they become focused only on acquiring the skill or knowledge that is required. The simplistic elegance of Bruner's theory means that scaffolding can be applied across all sectors, for all ages and for all topics of learning.<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied to education</b><br /><br />It is important for teachers to provide opportunities for children to constantly learn new things. Some of those may be highly complex and will require support of a very focused kind. Teachers need to be aware of the developmental state of each of the children in their care, and should provide scaffolding that is appropriate. Although this may not be possible to do on their own, teachers can improvise and provide scaffolding through other support, including the use of other adults such as teaching assistants (para-educators) parent helpers, or more knowledgeable other children within the classroom. As children gain in confidence and competence in a particular areas, teachers might place them in groups to extend each other's learning further. It's also important that teachers recognise when a child is at the point where they begin to learn independently, and decisions can be made to set them free from the scaffolding.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S. and Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. <i>Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology,</i> 17(2), 89-100. <br /><br /><b>Other posts in this series:</b><br /><br />Anderson <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/making-memories.html">ACT-R Cognitive Architecture</a><br />Argyris <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">Double Loop Learning</a><br />Bandura <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/watch-and-learn.html">Social Learning Theory</a><br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Workers_dismantling_a_bamboo_scaffolding_2.JPG">Clément Bucco-Lechat</a> on Wikimedia Commons<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Reaching further by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-79260030025759622812014-05-21T05:47:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:25.215-07:00Watch and learn<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXtUI6dy1a6Oe1bZviA8patsTFvpRyz9gI7iAk5yYGadejMmWD_TesdprSfrvO0_UhwnvZ5I8ygjALAnbTbu_IEFR-PiDRjoF8wgb2PGULdbxJ5mBtVosa-SZy6KVbEH7m9GPkNF89ZEM/s1600/Crowd+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXtUI6dy1a6Oe1bZviA8patsTFvpRyz9gI7iAk5yYGadejMmWD_TesdprSfrvO0_UhwnvZ5I8ygjALAnbTbu_IEFR-PiDRjoF8wgb2PGULdbxJ5mBtVosa-SZy6KVbEH7m9GPkNF89ZEM/s1600/Crowd+2.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>This is the third in my blog series on major learning theories. My plan is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of their theories, and how each can be applied in education. Yesterday we examined the work of Chris Argyris on <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.cz/2014/05/in-loop-twice.html">double loop learning</a>. Today, we explore the work of Albert Bandura on social learning theory.<br /><br />It's been said that Albert Bandura's theory of social learning spans the gap between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">behaviourism</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)">cognitivism</a>. Social learning theory incorporates the idea of behaviour reinforcement from the former, and cognitive processes such as attention, motivation and memory from the latter. In fact, Social Learning theory is essentially - as the name suggests - an explanation of how we learn when we are in social contexts.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />It was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura">Albert Bandura</a>'s intention to explain how children learn in social environments by observing and then imitating the behaviour of others. In essence, be believed that learning could not be fully explained simply through reinforcement, but that the presence of others was also an influence. He noticed that the consequences of an observed behaviour often determined whether or not children adopted the behaviour themselves. Through a series of experiments, he watched children as they observed adults attacking <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/classicpsychologystudies/a/bobo-doll-experiment.htm">Bobo Dolls</a>. When hit, the dolls fell over and then bounced back up again. Then children were then let loose, and imitated the aggressive behaviour of the adults. However, when they observed adults acting aggressively and then being punished, Bandura noted that the children were less willing to imitate the aggressive behaviour themselves.<br /><br />From his research Bandura formulated four principles of social learning. These were:<br />1. Attention. We cannot learn if we are not focused on the task. If we see something as being novel or different in some way, we are more likely to make it the focus of their attention. Social contexts help to reinforce these perceptions.<br />2. Retention. We learn by internalising information in our memories. We recall that information later when we are required to respond to a situation that is similar the situation within which we first learnt the information.<br />3. Reproduction. We reproduce previously learnt information (behaviour, skills, knowledge) when required. However, practice through mental and physical rehearsal often improves our responses.<br />4. Motivation. We need to be motivated to do anything. Often that motivation originates from our observation of someone else being rewarded or punished for something they have done or said. This usually motivates us later to do, or avoid doing, the same thing. <br /><br /><b>How it can be applied to education</b><br /><br />Social modelling is a very powerful method of education. If children see positive consequences from a particular type of behaviour, they are more likely to repeat that behaviour themselves. Conversely, if negative consequences are the result, they are less likely to perform that behaviour. Novel and unique contexts often capture students' attention, and can stand out in the memory. Students are more motivated to pay attention if they see others around them also paying attention. Another less obvious application of this theory is to encourage students to develop their individual <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm">self efficacy</a> through confidence building and constructive feedback, a concept that is rooted in social learning theory.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Bandura, A. (1977) <i>Social Learning Theory</i>. New York: General Learning Press. <br /><br />Photo by <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mikepd/240903973/">MikePD</a><br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />Watch and learn by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2847118387374139683.post-67903710528503630062014-05-20T06:34:00.000-07:002014-07-28T21:18:25.295-07:00In the loop (twice)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMUmaypHaRSRWAtmy-7uJ8ZcR-9hthTvMl9e8JqqUUWdk9X6UAkiGTzrahjDJGLJTo3SnKDXC5M0V8kDomcf5mJIncGBVs6dC-FiLYi49r-o1qFEJY4GgS2poe0LwQk671EHT6rePlVB0/s1600/1+Spiral+Staircase.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMUmaypHaRSRWAtmy-7uJ8ZcR-9hthTvMl9e8JqqUUWdk9X6UAkiGTzrahjDJGLJTo3SnKDXC5M0V8kDomcf5mJIncGBVs6dC-FiLYi49r-o1qFEJY4GgS2poe0LwQk671EHT6rePlVB0/s1600/1+Spiral+Staircase.jpg" height="266" width="400" /></a></div>This is the second in my series of short blog posts on important theories of learning. My plan is to work through the alphabet of psychologists and provide a brief overview of their theories, and how each can be applied to education. In the first post we looked at John Anderson's <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/2014/05/making-memories.html">cognitive architecture model ACT-R</a>.<br /><br />Today, I'm going to discuss the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Argyris">Chris Argyris</a> and his theory of double loop learning. This is a simplified explanation of the theory, so those who wish to read more deeply should read to the volume in the reference section.<br /><br /><b>The theory</b><br /><br />Argyris bases his theory on the premise that each of us has a cognitive map inside our heads - in other words, a mental script to deal with problems and challenges based on previous experience. Working with others including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Sch%C3%B6n">Donald Schon</a>, Argyris developed this idea into a theory of learning. We live and work in a mode of 'detection and correction of error'. When we meet a problem, we fall back on our experience (including the rules and what we are allowed to do within them) and attempt to address the problem from this mental array of skills and knowledge - known as our 'espoused theory of action'. We learn to develop a theory for everything, and this becomes our way of coping with change, decision making and challenges that come our way. Argyris calls this process Single Loop learning, and sees it as the most common response. He likens this to a thermostat in your house. When it becomes too warm, the thermostat turns down the heating.<br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGThLoszp2L41KpF0z9ZcFdIp4i78pKABef2GPNxkVLW_9UUpP318zKcdehdIDlpP_68KRCxi4Ac_90WvoQbDVsFdWWCjue8UR3P_hYVgiSRMkkSzSO-GR9mJE85hOHngOI9FfifS65FQ/s1600/1+Double+Loop+graphic.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGThLoszp2L41KpF0z9ZcFdIp4i78pKABef2GPNxkVLW_9UUpP318zKcdehdIDlpP_68KRCxi4Ac_90WvoQbDVsFdWWCjue8UR3P_hYVgiSRMkkSzSO-GR9mJE85hOHngOI9FfifS65FQ/s1600/1+Double+Loop+graphic.png" height="400" width="396" /></a></div>Alternatively, in <a href="http://infed.org/mobi/chris-argyris-theories-of-action-double-loop-learning-and-organizational-learning/">Double Loop learning</a>, we learn to think outside of the box. We learn to examine the problem from a different angle, perhaps questioning the rules (what Argyris calls the 'governing variables'), and attempting to make changes that are more holistic and wide ranging than merely solving the problem itself. As Argyris and Schon wrote in 1978, <i>'Double loop learning occurs when the error is detected and corrected in ways that involve the modification of an organization's underlying norms, policies and objectives'</i> (p 2-3).<br /><br /><b>How it can be applied in education</b><br /><br />It's clear that Argyris's work is aimed at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_learning">organisational learning</a>, so his work is of great relevance for learning and development professionals. Those who manage change in large organisations would also have an interest in how double loop learning (and the thinking behind it) might be encouraged. Essentially, Argyris is calling for creative approaches to problem solving, where the problems themselves become opportunities for workers to improve their organisation, reflect on their practice and implement change that is sustainable and effective. The theory also has applications in education where teachers can encourage their students to think more widely than the problem itself, examining the entire context in which the problem is presented. Creative and critical thinking of this kind can often lead the learner to a global appreciation of the topic they are studying.<br /><br /><b>Reference</b><br /><br />Argyris, C. and Schon, D. A. (1978) Organizational Learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.<br /><br />Photo by <a href="http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-5854711359">Albert Debruijn</a><br />Graphic by <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Smycka3eng.png">xjent03</a> on Wikimedia Commons<br /><br /><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license"><img alt="Creative Commons License" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-sa/3.0/88x31.png" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px;" /></a><br />In the loop (twice) by <a href="http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.com/" property="cc:attributionName" rel="cc:attributionURL" xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#">Steve Wheeler</a> is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07621980312433081697noreply@blogger.com0